Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3120
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Socio-Economic Impact of Outer Continental Shelf Wind Energy Development on Fisheries in the US Atlantic: Volume II - Appendices Kirkpatrick, A., Benjamin, S., DePiper, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Sonar for environmental monitoring of marine renewable energy technologies Francisco, F. Thesis Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Thanet Extension Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Impact Assessment Report to Inform Scoping Royal Haskoning Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Assessment of Displacement Impacts of Offshore Windfarms and Other Human Activities on Red-Throated Divers and Alcids McGovern, S., Goddard, B., Rehfisch, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds
Block Island Wind Farm GE Wind Energy Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Spatial distribution and habitat preference of harbour seals (Phoca vitulina) in the Dutch North Sea Geert, A., Cremer, J., Kirkwood, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Bat activity during autumn relates to atmospheric conditions: implications for coastal wind energy development Smith, A., McWilliams, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats
Lack of Sound Science in Assessing Wind Farm Impacts on Seabirds Green, R., Langston, R., McCluskie, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Seabirds, Birds
Kármán vortex and turbulent wake generation by wind park piles Grashorn, S., Stanev, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Sediment Transport, Physical Environment
Modelling flight heights of Lesser Black-backed Gulls and Great Skuas from GPS: a Bayesian approach Ross-Smith, V., Thaxter, C., Masden, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Avoidance of Wind Farms by Harbour Seals is Limited to Pile Driving Activities Russell, D., Hastie, G., Thompson, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Noise Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Patterns of migrating soaring migrants indicate attraction to marine wind farms Skov, H., Desholm, M., Heinänen, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Co-location of passive gear fisheries in offshore wind farms in the German EEZ of the North Sea: A first socio-economic scoping Stelzenmüller, V., Diekmann, R., Bastardie, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summer 2016 Taxonomic Analysis Summary Report Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Marine wind energy and the North Sea Offshore Grid Initiative: A Multi-Level Perspective on a stalled technology transition? Flynn, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions
Project Icebreaker Bird and Bat Risk Analysis Gordon, C., Erickson, W. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement Bats, Birds
Appendix L-1 WEST Summary of Risks to Birds and Bats Gordon, C., Erickson, W. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Offshore wind energy ecological programme (Wozep) Monitoring and research programme 2017-2021 WOZEP project team Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
Effects of Pile Driving on the Residency and Movement of Tagged Reef Fish Iafrate, J., Watwood, S., Reyier, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Demersal Fish
Out of Sight, out of Mind? Existing Offshore Wind Farms Are More Accepted Than Planned Ones Hübner, G., Pohl, J. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Navigation, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement
Use of Baited Remote Underwater Video (BRUV) and Motion Analysis for Studying the Impacts of Underwater Noise upon Free Ranging Fish and Implications for Marine Energy Management Roberts, L., Perez-Dominguez, R., Elliott, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Noise Fish
Like the Din in a University Canteen The Underwater Operating Noise and its Effects on Porpoises and Friend Benesch, M., Radecke, H. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Much Hubble-Bubble About Nothing? Research into the Little Bubble Curtain Method of Noise Reduction Rolfes, R., Rustemeier, J., Grießmann, T. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
The most Important Environmental Project in a German Offshore Wind Farm: Accompanying Ecological Research on the Offshore Test Field Project Alpha Ventus Beiersdorf, A., Boethling, M., Binder, A. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Behavioral responses of sub-adult Atlantic Sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus oxyrinchus) to electromagnetic and magnetic fields under laboratory conditions McIntyre, A., Janeski, T., Garman, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Demersal Fish
Participation in Environmental Decision-making: Reflecting on Planning and Community Benefits for Major Wind Farms Armeni, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Quarterly Report for Aquatic Sampling: Project Icebreaker Pre-Construction Monitoring 3rd Quarter Verhamme, E., Daley, J., Cutrell, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summer 2016 Target Extraction Summary Report Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Beatrice Offshore Wind Farm Consent Plan Construction Method Statement Bellew, S. , Wilson, J., Wilson, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summary of Fall 2016 Digital Survey #2 Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Achieving Blue Growth through Maritime Spatial Planning: Offshore Wind Energy Optimization and Biodiversity Conservation in Spain Rodríguez-Rodríguez, D., Malak, D., Soukissian, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Spatial Planning, Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions, Ecosystem Processes
Need for a wind of change? Use of offshore wind messages by stakeholders and the media in Germany and their effects on public acceptance Schmidt, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Wind Farm Thornton Bank Phase 1: Annual Environmental Report 2010 C-Power Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Wind Farm Thornton Bank Phase 1: Annual Environmental Report 2009 C-Power Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2015 Van Laere, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Collision and Displacement Vulnerability Among Marine Birds of the California Current System Associated with Offshore Wind Energy Infrastructure Adams, J., Kelsey, E., Felis, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Seabirds, Birds
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Activity Report 2011 C-Power Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Annual environmental report 2015 - Belwind Belwind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Bats, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2012 C-Power Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Measurement and characterisation of radiated underwater sound from a 3.6 MW monopile wind turbine Pangerc, T., Theobald, P., Wang, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Displaying 1761 - 1800 of 3120 results