Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3120
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Appendix E-1 LimnoTech Report - Results of 2016 Aquatic Sampling LimnoTech Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Invertebrates
Interim Report of the Working Group on Marine Benthal and Renewable Energy Developments (WGMBRED) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions
Improving Efficiencies of National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Facilities - Case Studies Report English, P., Mason, T., Backstrom, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions
Maritime Route Delineation using AIS Data from the Atlantic Coast of the US Breithaupt, S., Copping, A., Tagestad, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Navigation, Human Dimensions
Life cycle assessment and net energy analysis of offshore wind power systems Huang, Y., Gan, X., Chiueh, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Current and Wave Effects around Windfarm Monopile Foundations Miles, J., Martin, T., Goddard, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Observing Cable Laying and Particle Settlement During the Construction of the Block Island Wind Farm James, E., Smith, K., Gallien, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Sustainable Decommissioning of an Offshore Wind Farm Topham, E., McMillan, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Norfolk Boreas Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Impact Assessment Scoping Report Royal Haskoning Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Migrating bats at the southern North Sea: Approach to an estimation of migration populations of bats at the southern North Sea Limpens, H., Lagerveld, S., Ahlén, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Fall 2016 Target Extraction Summary Report Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Offshore Wind Energy: Good Practice in Impact Assessment, Mitigation and Compensation Lüdeke, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
An Assessment of the Economic Potential of Offshore Wind in the United States from 2015 to 2030 Beiter, P., Musial, W., Kilcher, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Telemetry for migratory bats - a feasibility study Lagerveld, S., Janssen, R., Manshanden, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Unforeseen Responses of a Breeding Seabird to the Construction of an Offshore Wind Farm Harwood, A., Perrow, M., Berridge, R. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Avoidance Seabirds, Birds
Is There a State-of-the-Art to Reduce Pile-Driving Noise? Bellmann, M., Schuckenbrock, J., Gündert, S. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
A Framework for Assessing Ecological and Cumulative Effects (FAECE) of Offshore Wind Farms on Birds, Bats and Marine Mammals in the Southern North Sea Platteeuw, M., Bakker, J., van den Bosch, I. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Birds, Bats
Geophysical and Geotechnical Investigation Methodology Assessment for Siting Renewable Energy Facilities on the Atlantic OCS Fugro Marine GeoServices Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summary of Summer 2017 Digital Survey #5 Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Seabird Distribution and Abundance in the Offshore Environment Final Report Kuletz, K., Labunski, E. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Effects Matrix for Evaluating Potential Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Development on U.S. Atlantic Coastal Habitats Latham, P., Fiore, W., Bauman, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Human Dimensions
Mobile Demersal Megafauna at Common Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations in the German Bight (North Sea) Two Years after Deployment - Increased Production Rate of Cancer pagurus Krone, R., Dederer, G., Kanstinger, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
How does the cumulative impacts approach support Maritime Spatial Planning? Fernandes, M., Esteves, T., Oliveira, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Appendix I Aquatic Ecological Resource Characterization and Impact Assessment LimnoTech Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Appendix J WEST NEXRAD Analysis: Assessment of Nocturnal Bird Migration Activity from Weather Radar Data for the Proposed Icebreaker Wind Energy Facility, Lake Erie, Ohio Nations, C., Gordon, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Lake Erie Monitoring Plan for the Offshore Wind Project: Icebreaker Wind LimnoTech Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Ecosystem Processes, Fish
Integration of wave energy and other marine renewable energy sources with the needs of coastal societies Manasseh, R., Sannasiraj, S., McInnes, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Wave, Tidal, OTEC, Fixed Offshore Wind, Ocean Current, Marine Energy Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Joint SNCB Interim Displacement Advice Note Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC), Natural England Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Birds
Updated Seal Usage Maps: The Estimated at-sea Distribution of Grey and Harbour Seals Russell, D., Jones, E., Morris, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Civil Engineering Aspects of a Wind Farm and Wind Turbine Structures Bhattacharya, S. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals
Socio-Economic Impact of Outer Continental Shelf Wind Energy Development on Fisheries in the US Atlantic: Volume I - Report Narrative Kirkpatrick, A., Benjamin, S., DePiper, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Powering the Future Impact Report 2016/17 ORE Catapult Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
The Effect of Simulated Seal Scarer Sounds on Harbour Porpoises Hermannsen, L., Mikkelsen, L., Tougaard, J. Report Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Pinnipeds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
NEW YORK OCEAN ACTION PLAN 2017-2027 Abercrombie, D., Chytalo, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Estimating the distribution and relative density of satellite-tagged loggerhead sea turtles in the western North Atlantic using geostatistical mixed effects models Winton, M., Fay, G., Haas, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Benthic and Fish Aggregation Inside an Offshore Wind Farm: Which Effects on the Trophic Web Functioning? Raoux, A., Tecchio, S., Pezy, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates
Possible Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms on Seabirds: A Pilot Study in Northern Gannets in the Southern North Sea Garthe, S., Markones, N., Corman, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Seabirds, Birds
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: a Continued move towards Integration and Quantification Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment
Socio-Economic Impact of Outer Continental Shelf Wind Energy Development on Fisheries in the US Atlantic: Volume II - Appendices Kirkpatrick, A., Benjamin, S., DePiper, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Maritime ecosystem-based management in practice: Lessons learned from the application of a generic spatial planning framework in Europe Buhl-Mortensen, L., Galparsoro, I., Fernández, T. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
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