Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Avian and Bat Fatality Rates at Old-Generation and Repowered Wind Turbines in California Smallwood, K., Karas, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds, Bats
Map-Based Repowering of the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area Based on Burrowing Owl Burrows, Raptor Flights, and Collisions with Wind Turbines Smallwood, K., Neher, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Annual Report for the Maple Ridge Wind Power Project Postconstruction Bird and Bat Fatality Study - 2007 Jain, A., Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Slobodnik, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats, Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Collision Avoidance of Golden Eagles at Wind Farms Under the 'Band' Collision Risk Model Whitfield, D. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Using probability of occurrence to assess potential interaction between wind farms and a residual population of golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos in NW Spain Tapia, L., Dominguez, J., Rodriguez, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Biological Study Report West Ridge Wind Energy Project Gerhardt, R., Gritski, R., Luginbuhl, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Avian and Bat Protection Plan: Iberdrola Renewables Iberdrola Renewables Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Raptors
Biological Study Plan East Ridge Wind Energy Project Gerhardt, R., Luginbuhl, J., Gritski, R., Kronner, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
How Ecofriendly are Wind Farms? Cohn, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Raptors, Birds, Bats
Post-Construction Avian Monitoring Study for the Shiloh I Wind Power Project Solano County, California, Two Year Report Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Culp, L., Fischer, B., Hasch, A., Jain, A., Wilkerson, C. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
Post-Construction Meteorological Tower Fatality Study at the Shiloh I Wind Project Site Solano County, California Final Report Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Culp, L., Fischer, B., Hasch, A., Wilkerson, C. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
Turbine Search Methods and Carcass Removal Trials at the Braes of Doune Windfarm Duffy, K., Steward, M. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Pre- and Post-Construction Studies of Conflicts Between Birds and Wind Turbines in Coastal Norway: Status Report 1st January 2008 Bevanger, K., Follestad, A., Gjershaug, J., Halley, D., Hanssen, F., Johnsen, L., May, R., Nygård, T., Pedersen, H., Reitan, O., Steinheim, Y. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Bird Mortality in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California Smallwood, K., Thelander, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Post-Construction Avian Monitoring Study for the Shiloh I Wind Power Project Solano County, California Year One Final Report Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Culp, L., Fischer, B., Hasch, A., Wilkerson, C. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Passerines, Birds, Bats
Burrowing Owl Mortality in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area Smallwood, K., Thelander, C., Morrison, M., Rugge, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Wind Power and Birds at Smøla 2003-2006 Follestad, A., Flagstad, Ø., Nygård, T., Reitan, O., Schulze, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
The Possible Effects of Wind Energy on Illinois Birds and Bats Illinois Department of Natural Resources Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Waterfowl, Raptors, Birds, Bats
Biglow Canyon Wind Farm: Wildlife Monitoring and Mitigation Plan Portland General Electric Company, Oregon Department of Energy Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Raptors
Nocturnal Behavior of Raptors at Wind Energy Facilities Castle, J. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Wildlife and Habitat Baseline Study for the Whiskey Ridge Wind Power Project, Kittitas County, Washington Western Ecosystems Technology Inc (WEST) Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Interim Summary on the Effectiveness of the Winter Period Turbine Shutdown in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area Erickson, W., Strickland, D. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Puget Sound Energy Hopkins Ridge Wind Project Phase 1 Post-Construction Avian and Bat Monitoring First Annual Report Young, D. Jr., Erickson, W., Jeffrey, J., Poulton, V. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Passerines, Ground-Nesting Birds, Birds, Bats
Eagle Owl and Wind Power development at Karmøy, Western Norway Rov, N., Jacobsen, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Spatial Association as an Indicator of the Potential for Future Interactions Between Wind Energy Developments and Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos in Scotland Fielding, A., Whitfield, D., McLeod, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
The Effects of Wind Turbines on Antipredator Behavior in California Ground Squirrels (Spermophilus beecheyi) Rabin, L., Coss, R., Owings, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Noise, Collision, Avoidance Terrestrial Mammals, Raptors, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
Deriving Collision Avoidance Rates for Red Kites Milvus milvus Whitfield, D., Madders, M. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
A Review of the Impacts of Wind Farms on Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus and an Estimation of Collision Avoidance Rates Whitfield, D., Madders, M. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Biological Effects of Repowering a Portion of the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California: The Diablo Winds Energy Project Smallwood, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
The Trend of Golden Eagle Territory Occupancy in the Vicinity of the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area: 2005 Survey Hunt, G., Hunt, T. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Post-Construction Avian and Bat Fatality Monitoring Study for the High Winds Wind Power Project Solano County, California: Two Year Report Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Culp, L., Jain, A., Wilkerson, C., Fischer, B., Hasch, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Terrestrial Mammals, Raptors, Birds, Bats
Avian Monitoring Study and Risk Assessment for the Shiloh Wind Power Project Solano County, California Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Wilkerson, C., Culp, L., Hasch, A., Jain, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Upland Raptors and the Assessment of Wind Farm Impacts Madders, M., Whitfield, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Impacts of Wind Farms on Birds in Evros and Rhodopi, Greece: Preliminary results Ruiz, G., Poirazidis, K., Schindler, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Summer 2005 Breeding Birds Surveys at the Proposed Top Notch Wind Project in Fairfield and Norway, New York Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Modelled Cumulative Impacts on the White-Bellied Sea-Eagle of Wind Farms Across the Species' Australian Range Smales, I. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Seabirds, Raptors, Birds
A Fall 2005 Radar, Visual, and Acoustic Survey of Bird and Bat Migration at the Proposed Clayton Wind Project: Draft Report Woodlot Alternatives Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds, Raptors
A Spring 2005 Radar, Visual, and Acoustic Survey of Bird and Bat Migration at the Proposed Deerfield Wind Project in Searsburg and Readsboro, Vermont Roy, R., Pelletier, S. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
Avian and Bat Studies for the Proposed Dairy Hills Wind Project, Wyoming County, New York Young, D. Jr., Nations, C., Poulton, V., Kerns, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds, Raptors
A Spring 2005 Radar, Visual, and Acoustic Survey of Bird and Bat Migration at the Proposed Clayton Wind Project in Clayton, New York Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds, Raptors, Waterfowl
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