Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Modelled Cumulative Impacts on the Tasmanian Wedge-Tailed Eagle of Wind Farms Across the Species' Range Muir, S., Smales, I. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Avian Monitoring and Risk Assessment at the San Gorgonio Wind Resource Area Anderson, R., Tom, J., Neumann, N., Erickson, W., Strickland, M., Bourassa, M. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Seabirds, Raptors, Passerines, Birds, Bats
A Summary and Comparison of Bird Mortality from Anthropogenic Causes with an Emphasis on Collisions Erickson, W., Johnson, G., Young, D. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Fall 2004 Avian Migration Surveys at the Proposed Deerfield Wind/Searsburg Expansion Project in Searsburg and Readsboro, Vermont Roy, R., Pelletier, S. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
Behavior of Red-Tailed Hawks in a Wind Turbine Development Hoover, S., Morrison, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Assessment And Prediction Of Bird And Bat Mortality At Wind Energy Facilities In The Southeastern United States Nicholson, C., Tankersley, R. Jr., Fielder, J., Nicholas, N. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds, Raptors
Resident Golden Eagle Ranging Behaviour Before and After Construction of a Windfarm in Argyll Walker, D., McGrady, M., McCluskie, A., Madders, M., McLeod, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Repowering the APWRA: Forecasting and Minimizing Avian Mortality without Significant Loss of Power Generation Smallwood, K., Neher, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Stateline Wind Project Wildlife Monitoring Final Report: July 2001 - December 2003 Erickson, W., Jeffrey, J., Kronner, K., Bay, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
Behavioural and Environmental Correlates of Soaring-Bird Mortality at On-Shore Wind Turbines Barrios, L., Rodríguez, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Developing Methods To Reduce Bird Mortality In The Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area Smallwood, K., Thelander, C. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Bird Risk Behaviors and Fatalities at the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area: Period of Performance: March 1998 - December 2000 Thelander, C., Smallwood, K., Rugge, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Raptors, Birds
Nine Canyon Wind Power Project Avian and Bat Monitoring Report: September 2002 - August 2003 Erickson, W., Kronner, K., Gritski, B. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Passerines, Ground-Nesting Birds, Birds, Bats
Cumulative Impacts Analysis for Avian and Other Wildlife Resources from Proposed Wind Projects in Kittitas County, Washington Young, D. Jr., Erickson, W. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Terrestrial Mammals
Environmental Assessment: Wind Energy Center Edgeley/Kulm Project North Dakota Western Area Power Administration (WAPA) Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Baseline Avian Studies for the Proposed Hopkins Ridge Wind Project, Columbia County, Washington: Final Report Young, D. Jr., Erickson, W., Bay, K., Jeffrey, J., Lack, B., Good, R., Sawyer, H. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Raptors, Passerines, Birds
Collision Potential of Eiders and Other Birds Near a Proposed Windfarm at St. Lawrence Island, October-November 2002 Day, R., Rose, J., Ritchie, R., Shook, J., Cooper, B. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Waterfowl, Shorebirds, Seabirds, Raptors, Birds
Two White-Tailed Sea Eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) Collide with Wind Generators in Northern Germany Krone, O., Scharnweber, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Avian and Sensitive Species Baseline Study Final Report: Eurus Combine Hills Turbine Ranch Umatilla County, Oregon Young, D. Jr., Erickson, W., Jeffrey, J., Bay, K., Good, R., Lack, B. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Avian and Bat Mortality Associated with the Initial Phase of the Foote Creek Rim Windpower Project, Carbon County, Wyoming November 1998-June 2002 Young, D. Jr., Erickson, W., Good, R., Strickland, M., Johnson, G. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats, Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Comparison of Avian Responses to UV-Light-Reflective Paint on Wind Turbines Young, D., Erickson, W., Strickland, M., Good, R., Sernka, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Lighting, Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Wildlife Baseline Study for the Kittitas Valley Wind Project: Summary of Results from 2002 Wildlife Surveys Erickson, W., Jeffrey, J., Young, D., Bay, K., Good, R., Sernka, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
A Roadmap for PIER Research on Avian Collisions with Wind Turbines in California Sterner, D. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats, Birds, Raptors
Effects of Wind Turbines on Birds and Bats in Northeastern Wisconsin Howe, R., Evans, W., Wolf, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Seabirds, Shorebirds
Collision Mortality of Local and Migrant Birds at a Large-Scale Wind-Power Development on Buffalo Ridge, Minnesota Johnson, G., Erickson, W., Strickland, M., Shepherd, M., Shepherd, D., Sarappo, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Golden Eagles in a Perilous Landscape: Predicting the Effects of Mitigation for Wind Turbine Blade Strike Mortality Hunt, G. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision Birds, Raptors
Response of Red-Tailed Hawks and Golden Eagles to Topographical Features, Weather, and Abundance of a Dominant Prey Species at the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California: April 1999-December 2000 Hoover, S. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Ecological Baseline Study for the Zintel Canyon Wind Project Erickson, W., Johnson, G., Bay, K., Konner, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds, Raptors
Baseline Ecological Studies for the Klondike Wind Project, Sherman County, Oregon Johnson, G., Erickson, W., Bay, K., Kronner, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
Demonstration Windpower Project St. Lawrence Bird Surveys Jacques Whitford Environment Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
An Assessment of the Impacts of Green Mountain Power Corporation's Wind Power Facility on Breeding and Migrating Birds in Searsburg, Vermont: July 1996-July 1998 Kerlinger, P. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Passerines, Birds
Golden Eagles in a Multiple Land-Use Environment: A Case Study in Conflict Management Madders, M., Walker, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Novar Windfarm Ltd Ornithological Monitoring Studies: Breeding Bird and Birdstrike Monitoring 2001 Results & 5-Year Review Bioscan Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Avian Collisions with Wind Turbines: A Summary of Existing Studies and Comparisons to Other Sources of Avian Collision Mortality in the United States Erickson, W., Johnson, G., Strickland, M., Young, D., Sernka, K., Good, R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Collision Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Proceedings of the National Avian - Wind Power Planning Meeting IV NWCC Avian Subcommittee Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Raptors
Automated Systems for Monitoring Avian Interactions with Utility Structures and Evaluating the Effectiveness of Mitigative Measures Carlton, R., Harness, R. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Wildlife Monitoring Studies: SeaWest Windpower Project, Carbon County, Wyoming: 1995-1999 Johnson, G., Young, D. Jr., Erickson, W., Derby, C., Strickland, D., Good, R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Shorebirds, Raptors, Birds, Bats
Avian Risk Behavior and Fatalities at the Altamont Wind Resource Area: March 1998 to February 1999 Thelander, C., Rugge, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Ponnequin Wind Energy Project: Reference Site Avian Study Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Ryder, R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Passerines, Ground-Nesting Birds, Birds
Avian and Bat Mortality Associated with the Vansycle Wind Project, Umatilla County, Oregon 1999 Study Year Erickson, W., Johnson, G., Strickland, M., Kronner, K. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Bats, Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors
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