Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

Download the Summary of Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States here.

Additional Raptor Resources

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
A Survey of Sex Ratios of Raptors at a Rescue Center in China Yang, L., Zhou, B., Huang, X., Gao, K., Chen, Z., Dai, C., Zhang, S., Zhou, L., Li, Z., Shang, Y., Xi, C., Deng, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Responses of dispersing GPS-tagged Golden Eagles (Aquila chrysaetos) to multiple wind farms across Scotland Fielding, A., Anderson, D., Benn, S., Dennis, R., Geary, M., Weston, E., Whitfield, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Flight Altitudes of Raptors in Southern Africa Highlight Vulnerability of Threatened Species to Wind Turbines McClure, C., Dunn, L., McCabe, J., Rolek, B., Botha, A., Virani, M., Buij, R., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Major threats to a migratory raptor vary geographically along the eastern Mediterranean flyway Oppel, S., Arkumarev, V., Bakari, S,, Dobrev, V., Saravia-Mullin, V., Adefolu, S., Aktay Sözüer, L., Apeverga, P., Arslan, S., Barshep, Y., Bino,T., Bounas, A., Çetin,T., Dayyoub, M., Dobrev, D., Duro, K., El-Moghrabi, L., ElSafoury, H., Endris, A., Ghazal Asswad, N., Harry, J., Ivande, S., Jbour, S., Kapsalis, E., Kret, E., Mahamued, B., Manu, S., Mengistu, S., Moussa Zabeirou, A., Muhammad, S., Nakev, S., Ngari, A., Onoja, J., Osta, M., Özuslu, S., Petrovski, N., Popgeorgiev, G., Pourchier, C., Qaneer, T., Ruffo, A., Shobrak, M., Sidiropoulos, L., Skartsi, T., Sözüer, Ö., Stara, K., Tesfaye, M., Topi, M,, Vavylis, D., Velevski, M., Vorpsi, Z., Wondafrash, M., Xeka, E., Yeniyurt, C., Yordanov, E., Nikolov, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Non-territorial GPS-tagged golden eagles Aquila chrysaetos at two Scottish wind farms: Avoidance influenced by preferred habitat distribution, wind speed and blade motion status Fielding, A., Anderson, D., Benn, S., Dennis, R., Geary, M., Weston, E., Whitfield, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Eagles enter rotor-swept zones of wind turbines at rates that vary per turbine McClure, C., Rolek, B., Braham, M., Miller, T., Duerr, A., McCabe, J., Dunn, L., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A bird of two hemispheres: An examination of Swainson’s hawk (Buteo swainsoni) ecology across a landscape of increasing wind energy development Watson, K. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Demographic and potential biological removal models identify raptor species sensitive to current and future wind energy Diffendorfer, J., Stanton, J., Beston, J., Thogmartin, W., Loss, S., Katzner, T., Johnson, D., Erickson, R., Merrill, M., Corum, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A pathway for citizen science data to inform policy: A case study using eBird data for defining low-risk collision areas for wind energy development Ruiz-Gutierrez, V., Bjerre, E., Otto, M., Zimmerman, S., Millsap, B., Fink, D., Stuber, E., Strimas-Mackey, M., Robinson, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Adaptive management to improve eagle conservation at terrestrial wind facilities New, L., Simonis, J., Otto, M., Bjerre, E., Runge, M., Millsap, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Quantifying Turbine-Level Risk to Golden Eagles Using a High-Fidelity Updraft Model and a Stochastic Behavioral Model Tripp, C., Sandhu, R., Lawson, M., Quon, E., Thedin, R., Draxl, C., Farmer, C., Katzner, T., Straw, B. Presentation Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Habitat use by post-fledging white-tailed eagles shows avoidance of human infrastructure and agricultural areas Balotari-Chiebao, F., Brommer, J., Tikkanen, H., Laaksonen, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Predicting Bald Eagle Collision at Wind Energy Facilities Nasman, K., Bay, K., Mattson, T., Leckband, J., Becker, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A predictive model for improving placement of wind turbines to minimise collision risk potential for a large soaring raptor Murgatroyd, M., Bouten, W., Amar, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
U.S. Geological Survey Migratory Bird Science, 2020–21 Pearse, A., Sherfy, M., Wimer, M., Khalil, M., Wiltermuth, M. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Physical Environment
Eagle fatalities are reduced by automated curtailment of wind turbines McClure, C., Rolek, B., Dunn, L., McCabe, J., Martinson, L., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Migratory Soaring Birds Project BirdLife International Website Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Final Environmental Assessment Leaning Juniper I Wind Facility Eagle Incidental Take Permit US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Mesoscale Modeling to Characterize Eagle Soaring Habitat Draxl, C., Lawson, M., Farmer, C., Katzner, T., Quon, E., Sandhu, R., Thedin, R., Tripp, C. Presentation Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Atmospheric Modeling to Enable Prediction of Golden Eagle Interactions with Wind Power Plants Quon, E., Lawson, M., Tripp, C., Draxl, C., Sandhu, R., Thedin, R. Presentation Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Use of Upland and Riparian Areas by Wintering Bald Eagles and Implications for Wind Energy Schmuecker, S., Becker, D., Lanzone, M., Fogg, B., Romano, S., Katzner, T., Miller, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Resource selection of apex raptors: implications for siting energy development in sagebrush and prairie ecosystems Squires, J., Olson, L., Wallace, Z., Oakleaf, R., Kennedy, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Paint it black: Efficacy of increased wind turbine rotor blade visibility to reduce avian fatalities May, R., Nygård, T., Falkdalen, U., Åström, J., Hamre, Ø., Stokke, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Waterfowl
Sex- but not age-biased wind turbine collision mortality in the White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla Heuck, C., Herrmann, C., Wendt, J., Krone, O., Brandl, R., Albrecht, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Unpacking the eagle collision risk model: practical guidance for wind energy Evans, M., Sporer, M., Erickson, W., Pagel, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
High-Resolution Modeling of Uplift Landscapes can Inform Micrositing of Wind Turbines for Soaring Raptors Hanssen, F., May, R., Nygård, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Final Environmental Assessment Biglow Canyon Wind Farm Eagle Permit US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Recovery of raptors from displacement by wind farms – a response Santos, C., Marques, A., May, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement Birds, Raptors
Identifying Birds' Collision Risk with Wind Turbines Using a Multidimensional Utilization Distribution Method Khosravifard, S., Skidmore, A., Naimi, B., Venus, V., Muñoz, A., Toxopeus, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Using radar technology to assess visual monitoring accuracy of Cape Vulture movements Becker, F., Millikin, R., Leslie, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Landscape anthropization shapes the survival of a top avian scavenger Arrondo, E., Sanz-Aguilar, A., Perez-Garcia, J., Cortes-Avizanda, A., Sanchez-Zapata, J., Donazar, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Predicting strike susceptibility and collision patterns of the common buzzard at wind turbine structures in the federal state of Brandenburg, Germany Bose, A., Durr, T., Klenke, R., Henle, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Collision risk of Montagu's Harriers Circus pygargus with wind turbines derived from high‐resolution GPS tracking Schaub, T., Klaassen, R., Bouten, W., Schlaich, A., Koks, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A long‐term assessment of raptor displacement at a wind farm Dohm, R., Jennelle, C., Garvin, J., Drake, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement Birds, Raptors
Draft Environmental Assessment Wild Horse Wind Project Eagle Permit US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Wind turbines in high quality habitat cause disproportionate increases in collision mortality of the white-tailed eagle Heuck, C., Herrmann, C., Levers, C., Leitão, P., Krone, O., Brandl, R., Albrecht, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Estimating Potential Costs of Cumulative Barrier Effects on Migrating Raptors: A Case Study Using Global Positioning System Tracking in Japan Kikuchi, D., Nakahara, T., Kitamura, W., Yamaguchi, N. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance Birds, Raptors
Assess risk of individual turbines to Golden Eagles Miller, T. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Review of Raptor Sections of the Bluestone Wind Avian Risk Assessment Miller, T. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Evaluation of Wind‐Energy Survey Protocols for Migrating Eagle Detection Chabot, E., Slater, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
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