Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

Download the Summary of Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States here.

Additional Raptor Resources

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Cumulative collision risk and population-level consequences of industrial wind-power plant development for two vulture species: A quantitative warning Bounas, A., Vasilakis, D., Kret, E., Zakkak, S., Chatzigiannakou, M., Kapsalis, E., Arkumarev, V., Dobrev, D., Stamenov, A., Stoychev, S., Skartsi, T., Sidiropoulos, L., Halley, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Effects of wind turbine dimensions on the collision risk of raptors: A simulation approach based on flight height distributions Schaub, T., Klaassen, R., Zutter, C., Albert, P., Bedotti, O., Bourrioux, J., Buij, R., Chadoeuf, J., Grande, C., Illner, H., Isambert, J., Janssens, K., Julius, E., Lee, S., Mionnet, A., Muskens, G., Raab, R., Rijn, S., Shamoun-Baranes, J., Spanoghe, G., Hecke, B., Waldenstrom, J., Millon, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Reconciling wind energy development with bird conservation: A comparative study of flight behaviour in raptors to understand and mitigate wind turbine collision risk Schaub, T. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Estimating collision risk for whitetailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) in onshore wind power environments: Application of spatial modelling frameworks and predictive mapping Halgunset, G. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Efficacy of non‐lead ammunition distribution programs to offset fatalities of golden eagles in southeast Wyoming Slabe, V., Crandall, R., Katzner, T., Duerr, A., Miller, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Fortsetzungsstudie Probabilistik - Das Raumnutzungs-Kollisionsrisikomodell (RKR-Modell) Mercker, M., Raab, R., Liesenjohann, T., Liedtke, J., Blew, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Reduced survival in a soaring bird breeding in wind turbine proximity along the northern Baltic Sea coast Nebel, C., Stjernberg, T., Tikkanen, H., Laaksonen, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Evaluating the Effectiveness of a Detection and Deterrent System in Reducing Golden Eagle Fatalities at Operational Wind Facilities Felton, S., Perkins, L., Smith, J., Terrell, S. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Raptors
Assessing exposure to wind turbines of a migratory raptor through its annual life cycle across continents Assandri, G., Bazzi, G., Bermejo-Bermejo, A., Bounas, A., Calvario, E., Catoni, C., Catry, I., Catry, T., Champagnon, J., De Pascalis, F., de la Puente, J., del Moral, J.C., Duriez, O., Evangelidis, A., Gameiro, J., García-Silveira, D., Garcés-Toledano, F., Jiguet, F., Kordopatis, P., Lopez-Ricuarte, L., Martinez, J., Mascara, R., Mellone, U., Molina, B., Morinay, J., Pilard, P., Ramellini, S., Rodríguez-Moreno, B., Romero, M., Sarà, M., Saulnier, N., Tsiopelas, N., Urios, V., Morganti, M., Rubolini, D., Cecere, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement Birds, Raptors
Lack of evasive behaviour by a Martial Eagle Polemaetus bellicosus on impact with a turbine blade at a South African wind farm: causes and mitigations; Absence de comportement évasif d’un Aigle martial Polemaetus bellicosus lors de l’impact avec une pale Simmons, R., Martins, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Raptors
Wind Farms and Power Lines Reduced the Territory Status and Probability of Fledgling Production in the Eurasian Goshawk Accipiter gentilis Husby, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Noise Birds, Raptors
Predicting the spatial distribution of wintering golden eagles to inform full annual cycle conservation in western North America Wallace, Z., Bedrosian, B., Dunk, J., LaPlante, D., Woodbridge, B., Smith, B., Brown, J., Lickfett, T., Gura, K., Bittner, D., Crandall, R., Domenech, R., Katzner, T., Kritz, K., Lewis, S., Lockhart, M., Miller, T., Quint, K., Shreading, A., Slater, S., Stahlecker, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Approach Distances of Scottish Golden Eagles Aquila chrysaetos to Wind Turbines According to Blade Motion Status, Wind Speed, and Preferred Habitat Fielding, A., Anderson, D., Benn, S., Taylor, J., Tingay, R., Weston, E., Whitfield, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Raptors
Long-term impacts of the Smøla wind farm on a local population of white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus albicilla) Stokke, B., Dahl, E., Kleven, O., May, R., Nygård, T., Pavón-Jordán, D., Sandercock, B. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Winter Distribution of Golden Eagles in the Eastern USA Miller, T., Lanzone, M., Braham, M., Duerr, A., Cooper, J., Somershoe, S. , Hanni, D., Soehren, E., Threadgill, C., Maddox, M., Stober, J., Kelly, C., Salo, T., Berry, A., Martell, M., Mehus, S., Dirks, B., Sargent, R., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Wind farms and Griffon Vultures: Evidence that under certain conditions history is not-always turbulent Farfan, M., Díaz-Ruiz, F., Duarte, J., Martín-Taboada, A., Munoz, A-R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Incidental eagle carcass detection can contribute to fatality estimation at operating wind energy facilities Hallingstad, E., Riser-Espinoza, D., Brown, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions
Detection of wind turbines rotary motion by birds: A matter of speed and contrast Blary, C., Bonadonna, F., Dussauze, E., Potier, S., Besnard, A., Duriez, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Assessing carcass relocation for offsetting golden eagle mortality at wind energy facilities Lonsdorf, E., Gerber, J., Ray, D., Slater, S., Allison, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
The Tradeoff Between Wildlife Conservation and Renewable Energy: Evidence from Golden Eagles and Wind Turbines O'Brien, B., Hagerty, N. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Modeling the Spatial Distribution of Carcasses of Eagles Killed by Wind Turbines Huso, M., Dalthorp, D., Mintz, J., Nygård, T., May, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Pilotstudie: Erprobung Probabilistik/Testing Probabilistics Mercker, M., Liedtke, J., Liesenjohann, T., Blew, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Wind turbines in managed forests partially displace common birds Rehling, F., Delius, A., Ellerbrok, J., Farwig, N., Peter, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Effectiveness of an artificial intelligence-based system to curtail wind turbines to reduce eagle collisions Duerr, A., Parsons, A., Nagy, L., Kuehn, M., Bloom, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A utilization distribution for the global population of Cape Vultures (Gyps coprotheres) to guide wind energy development Cervantes, F., Murgatroyd, M., Allan, D., Farwig, N., Kemp, R., Kruger, S., Maude, G., Mendelsohn, J., Rösner, S., Schabo, D., Tate, G., Wolter, K., Amar, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Large soaring raptors vs wind turbines development in the Swiss Alps Vignali, S., Braunisch, V., Arlettaz, R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Decoding Golden Eagle Movement Behavior from High-Resolution, Variable-Rate Telemetry Data Through Bayesian Filtering Sandhu, R., Tripp, C., Quon, E., Thedin, R., Brandes, D., Braham, M., Miller, T., Duerr, A., Farmer, C. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A review of raptor carcass persistence trials and the practical implications for fatality estimation at wind farms Wilson, D., Hulka, S., Bennun, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
The species-specificity of energy landscapes for soaring birds, and its consequences for transferring suitability models across species Scacco, M., Arrondo, E., Donazar, J., Flack, A., Sanchez-Zapata, J., Duriez, O., Wikelski, M., Safi, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Changes in Flow, Collision Birds, Raptors
Limited rigor in studies of raptor mortality and mitigation at wind power facilities Conkling, T., McClure, C., Cuadros, S., Loss, S., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Quantifying Raptors’ Flight Behavior to Assess Collision Risk and Avoidance Behavior to Wind Turbines Linder, A., Lyhne, H., Laubek, B., Bruhn, D., Pertoldi, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Raptors
Significant decline of Griffon Vulture collision mortality in wind farms during 13-year of a selective turbine stopping protocol Ferrer, M., Alloing, A., Baumbush, R., Morandini, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Selecting auditory alerting stimuli for eagles on the basis of auditory evoked potentials Goller, B., Baumhardt, P., Dominguez-Villegas, E., Katzner, T., Fernández-Juricic, E., Lucas, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Flight characteristics forecast entry by eagles into rotor-swept zones of wind turbines Rolek, B., Braham, M., Miller, T., Duerr, A., Katzner, T., McCabe, J., Dunn, L., McClure, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Wind Farms and Power Lines Have Negative Effects on Territory Occupancy in Eurasian Eagle Owls (Bubo bubo) Husby, M., Pearson, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Noise Birds, Raptors, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Hotspots in the grid: Avian sensitivity and vulnerability to collision risk from energy infrastructure interactions in Europe and North Africa Gauld, J., Silva, J., Atkinson, P., Record, P., Acacio, M., Arkumarev, V., Blas, J., Bouten, W., Burten, N., Catry, I., Champagnon, J., Clewley, G., Dagys, M., Duriez, O., Exo, K., Fiedler, W., Flack, A., Friedemann, G., Fritz, J., Garcia-Ripolles, C., Garthe, S., Giunchi, D., Grozdanov, A., Harel, R., Humphreys, E., Janssen, R., Kolzch, A., Kulikova, O., Lameris, T., Lopez-Lopez, P., Masden, E., Monti, F., Nathan, R., Nikolov, S., Oppel, S., Peshev, H., Phipps, L., Pokrovsky, I., Ross-Smith, V., Saravia, V., Scragg, E., Sforzi, A., Stoynov, E., Thaxter, C., Van Steelant, W., van Toor, M., Vorneweg, B., Waldenstrom, J., Wikelski, M., Zydelis, R., Franco, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors, Seabirds
Stochastic agent-based model for predicting turbine-scale raptor movements during updraft-subsidized directional flights Sandhu, R., Tripp, C., Quon, E., Thedin, R., Lawson, M., Brandes, D., Farmer, C., Miller, T., Draxl, C., Doubrawa, P., Williams, L., Duerr, A., Braham, M., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A Predictive Flight-Altitude Model for Avoiding Future Conflicts Between an Emblematic Raptor and Wind Energy Development in the Swiss Alps Vignali, S., Lörcher, F., Hegglin, D., Arlettaz, R., Braunisch, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Drivers of change in mountain and upland bird populations in Europe Alba, R., Kasoar, T., Chamberlain, D., Buchanan, G., Thompson, D., Pearce-Higgins, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors, Waterfowl
Bayesian State-Space Modeling Framework for Understanding and Predicting Golden Eagle Movements Using Telemetry Data Sandhu, R., Tripp, C., Brandes, D., Thedin, R., Quon, E., Williams, L., Lawson, M., Katzner, T., Farmer, C., Miller, T., Duerr, A., Braham, M. Presentation Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
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