Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Avian Monitoring and Risk Assessment at Tehachapi Pass and San Gorgonio Pass Wind Resource Areas, California: Phase 1 Preliminary Results Anderson, R., Strickland, D., Tom, J., Neumann, N., Erickson, W., Cleckler, J., Mayorga, G., Nuhn, G., Leuders,A., Schneider, J., Backus, L., Becker, P., Flagg, N. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Collision Birds, Raptors
A Population Study of Golden Eagles in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area: Population Trend Analysis 1994-1997 Hunt, W., Jackman, R., Hunt, T., Driscoll, D., Culp, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
An Evaluation of the Impact of the Alameda County/Land Owner Ground Squirrel Management Program on Squirrel Abundance, Raptor Use, and Raptor Fatalities: A status report Kerlinger, P., Curry, R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Terrestrial Mammals, Raptors, Birds
Predicting the Response of Bird Populations to Wind Energy-Related Deaths Morrison, M., Pollock, K., Oberg, A., Sinclair, K. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Seabirds, Waterfowl, Ecosystem Processes
Altamont Avian Plan: Status Report to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service By the Consortium of Altamont Owners Richard Curry Associates Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
The Influence of High Ground Squirrel Densities on the Occurrence of Golden Eagles on Altamont Ownership Consortium Property Hunt, G., Culp, L. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Terrestrial Mammals, Raptors, Birds
A Population Study of Golden Eagles in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area: Second-Year Progress Report Predatory Bird Research Group Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Assessing Impacts to Birds from the Buffalo Ridge, Minnesota Windplant Development Erickson, W., Johnson, G., Strickland, M., Sarappo, S., Halet, R. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Waterfowl
Effects of Wind Turbines on Nesting Raptors at Buffalo Ridge in Southwestern Minnesota Usgaard, R., Naugle, D., Osborn, R., Higgins, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Using a Collision Model to Design Safer Wind Turbine Rotors for Birds Tucker, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
A Continued Examination of Avian Mortality in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area Orloff, S., Flannery, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
A Pilot Golden Eagle Population Study in the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area California Predatory Bird Research Group Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Whirly Birds Linn, A. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Avian use of proposed KENETECH and CARES wind farm sites in Klickitat County, Washington: Technical report Jones & Stokes Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors, Waterfowl
Wind Turbine Effects on Avian Activity, Habitat Use, and Mortality in the Altamont Pass and Solano County Wind Resource Areas, 1989-1991 Orloff, S., Flannery, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Assessment of Avian Use and Mortality Related to Wind Turbine Operations, Altamont Pass, Alameda and Contra Costa Counties, California, September 1988 through August 1989, Final Report Howell, J., Didonato, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Bird Movements and Collision Mortality at a Large Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine Byrne, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Waterfowl, Raptors, Passerines, Birds
Raptor Baseline Studies in Energy Development Kennedy, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Displaying 281 - 298 of 298 results