Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Calculation of the Probability of a Collision of Territorial Birds of Prey with Wind Turbines Rasran, L., Grajetzky, B., Mammen, U. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Golden Eagle Fatalities and the Continental-Scale Consequences of Local Wind-Energy Generation Katzner, T., Nelson, D., Braham, M., Doyle, J., Fernandez, N., Duerr, A., Bloom, P., Fitzpatrick, M., Miller, T., Culver, R., Braswell, L., DeWoody, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Distribution, Nesting Activities, and Age-Class of Territorial Pairs of Golden Eagles at the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California, 2014-16 Kolar, P., Wiens, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Verreauxs' Eagle and Wind Farms: Guidelines for Impact Assessment, Monitoring, and Mitigation BirdLife South Africa Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Quantifying the Demographic Cost of Human-Related Mortality to a Raptor Population Hunt, W., Wiens, J., Law, P., Fuller, M., Hunt, T., Driscoll, D., Jackman, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
A balanced solution to the cumulative threat of industrialized wind farm development on cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) in south-eastern Europe Vasilakis, D., Whitfield, D., Kati, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
The effects of atmospheric currents on the migratory behavior of soaring birds: a review Nourani, E., Yamaguchi, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Seabirds
Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus population trends in relation to wind farms Wilson, M., Fernandex-Bellon, D., Irwin, S., O'Halloran, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Raptors, Birds
Response of migrating raptors to an increasing number of wind farms Cabrera-Cruz, S., Villegas-Patraca, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Raptors, Birds
Wind energy, nest success, and post‐fledging survival of Buteo hawks Kolar, P., Bechard, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Raptors, Birds
Predicting Eagle Fatalities at Wind Facilities Bay, K., Nasman, K., Erickson, W., Taylor, K., Kosciuch, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Utilization Probability Map for Migrating Bald Eagles in Northeastern North America: A Tool for Siting Wind Energy Facilities and Other Flight Hazards Mojica, E., Watts, B., Turrin, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Proximity to wind-power plants reduces the breeding success of the white-tailed eagle Balotari-Chiebao, F., Brommer, J., Niinimaki, T., Laaksonen, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Reconciling endangered species conservation with wind farm development: Cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) in south-eastern Europe Vasilakis, D., Whitfield, D., Schindler, S., Poirazidis, K., Kati, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Framework for Testing the Effectiveness of Bat and Eagle Impact-Reduction Strategies at Wind Energy Projects Sinclair, K., DeGeorge, E. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Raptors, Birds, Bats
Final Report Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area Bird Fatality Study, Monitoring Years 2005–2013 ICF International Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Wind Energy Industry Eagle Detection and Deterrents: Research Gaps and Solutions Workshop Summary Report Sinclair, K., DeGeorge, E. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Addressing the factors that juxtapose raptors and wind turbines Hunt,G., Watson, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Effects of Wind Farms on Montagu's Harrier (Circus pygargus) in Southern Spain Hernández-Pliego, J., de Lucas, M., Muñoz, A., Ferrer, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Landscapes for Energy and Wildlife: Conservation Prioritization for Golden Eagles across Large Spatial Scales Tack, J., Fedy, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Using Spatial Analyses of Bearded Vulture Movements in Southern Africa to Inform Wind Turbine Placement Reid, T., Kruger, S., Whitfield, D., Amar, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
A Collision Risk Model to Predict Avian Fatalities at Wind Facilities: An Example Using Golden Eagles, Aquila chrysaetos New, L., Bjerre, M., Millsap, B., Otto, M., Runge, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Action on Multiple Fronts, Illegal Poisoning and Wind Farm Planning, is Required to Reverse the Decline of the Egyptian Vulture in Southern Spain Sanz-Aguilar, A., Sanchez-Zapata, J., Carrete, M., Benitez, J., Áila, E., Arenas, R., Donazar, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Game Birds do not Surrogate for Raptors in Trials to Calibrate Observed Raptor Collision Fatalities Urquhart, B., Hulka, S., Duffy, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Repowering Smøla Wind-Power Plant: An Assessment of Avian Conflicts Dahl, E., May, R., Nygård, T., Åström, J., Diserud, O. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision Raptors, Birds
Modeling autumn migration of a rare soaring raptor identifies new movement corridors in central Appalachia Dennhardt, A., Duerr, A., Brandes, D., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Results and Analysis of Eagle Studies from the Bluff Point and Studland Bay Wind Farms 2002-2012 Hull, C., Sims, C., Stark, E., Muir, S. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Raptors
Reproductive output of Hen Harriers Circus cyaneus in relation to wind turbine proximity Fernandez-Bellon, D., Irwin, S., Wilson, M., O'Halloran, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Raptors
Home Range and Resource Selection by GPS-Monitored Adult Golden Eagles in the Columbia Plateau Ecoregion: Implications for Wind Power Development Watson, J., Duff, A., Davies, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision Raptors, Birds
Wolfe Island Wind Plant Post-Construction Follow-up Plan Bird and Bat Resource Stantec Consulting Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Bats, Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Raptors
Increased Flight Altitudes among Migrating Golden Eagles Suggest Turbine Avoidance at a Rocky Mountain Wind Installation Johnston, N., Bradley, J., Otter, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance Birds, Raptors
Population dynamics in white-tailed eagle at an on-shore wind farm area in coastal Norway Dahl, E. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Wind farms in Thrace: Updating the proposal for proper site selection WWF Greece Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Eagle Conservation Plan Guidance: Module 1 Land-based Wind Energy US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Guidance Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
The New Zealand Falcon and Wind Farms: A Risk Assessment Framework Seaton, R., Barea, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Interannual Home Range Variation, Territoriality and Overlap in Breeding Bonelli's Eagles (Aquila fasciata) Tracked by GPS Satellite Telemetry Perez-Garcia, J., Margalida, A., Afonso, I., Ferreiro, E., Gardiazabal, A., Botella, F., Sanchez-Zapata, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
An Analytical Impact Assessment Framework for Wildlife to Inform the Siting and Permitting of Wind Energy Facilities Schwartz, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
An Overview of Monitoring for Raptors in Ireland Mee, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
A Preliminary Overview of Monitoring for Raptors in Croatia Mazal, V., Mikulic, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
A Preliminary Overview of Monitoring for Raptors in Sweden Hellstrom, P., Helander, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
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