Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

Download the Summary of Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States here.

Additional Raptor Resources

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Developing an efficient protocol for monitoring eagle fatalities at wind energy facilities Hallingstad, E., Rabie, P., Telander, A., Roppe, J., Nagy, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Wind farms have cascading impacts on ecosystems across trophic levels Thaker, M., Zambre, A., Bhosale, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
State of the World's Raptors: Distributions, Threats, and Conservation Recommendations McClure, C., Westrip, J., Johnson, J., Schulwitz, S., Virani, M., Davies, R., Symes, A., Wheatley, H., Thorstrom, R., Amar, A., Buij, R., Jones, V., Williams, N., Buechley, E., Butchart, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Behavioral accommodation of nesting hawks to wind turbines Watson, J., Keren, I., Davies, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance Birds, Raptors
Assessing space use by pre-breeding white-tailed eagles in the context of wind-energy development in Finland Balotari-Chiebao, F., Brommer, J., Saurola, P., Ijas, A., Laaksonen, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Movement patterns of white‐tailed sea eagles near wind turbines Krone, O., Treu, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Automated monitoring for birds in flight: Proof of concept with eagles at a wind power facility McClure, C., Marinson, L., Allison, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Modelling golden eagle habitat selection and flight activity in their home ranges for safer wind farm planning Tikkanen, H., Rytkönen, S., Karlin, O., Ollila, T., Pakanen, V., Tuohimaa, H., Orell, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Fixed Point Raptor Migration Survey at the National Wind Technology Center: April 2010 Ryon, T., Brenda, B. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Potential biological removal of white-tailed eagles and its application to environmental impact assessment for wind farms in Japan Matsuda, H., Tani, K., Shimada, Y. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Flight Response to Spatial and Temporal Correlates Informs Risk from Wind Turbines to the California Condor Poessel, S., Brandt, J., Mendenhall, L., Braham, M., Lanzone, M., McGann, A., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
The utility of point count surveys to predict wildlife interactions with wind energy facilities: An example focused on golden eagles Sur, M., Belhoff, J., Bjerre, E., Millsap, B., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Raptor Interactions with Wind Energy: Case Studies from Around the World Watson, R., Kolar, P., Ferrer, M., Nygård, T., Johnston, N., Hunt, W., Smit-Robinson, H., Farmer, C., Huso, M., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
The energy landscape predicts flight height and wind turbine collision hazard in three species of large soaring raptor Peron, G., Fleming, C., Duriez, O., Fluhr, J., Itty, C., Lambertucci, S., Safi, K., Shepard, E., Calabrese, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement, Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Raptors, Birds
2016-2017 Status Assessment and Update on the Wind Vision Roadmap DeMeo, E. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Raptors
Using GPS Transmitters to Explore Movement Ecology and to Assess Risk of the Wind Energy Industry for Swainson's Hawks Watson, K., Boal, C., Groen, L., Walker, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Spatial and Temporal Patterns in Golden Eagle Diets in the Western United States, with Implications for Conservation Planning Kochert, M., Watson, J., Steenhof, K., Woodbridge, B., Bedrosian, G., Preston, C., Williams, G., Keller, K., Crandall, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Golden Eagles in a Changing World Collopy, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
A Review of Options for Mitigating Take of Golden Eagles at Wind Energy Facilities Allison, T., Cochrane, J., Lonsdorf, E., Sanders-Reed, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Spatial Demographic Models to Inform Conservation Planning of Golden Eagles in Renewable Energy Landscapes Wiens, J., Schumaker, N., Inman, R., Esque, T., Longshore, K., Nussear, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
No Substitute for Survival: Perturbation Analyses Using a Golden Eagle Population Model Reveal Limits to Managing for Take Tack, J., Fedy, B., Noon, B., Bowen, Z., Strybos, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Match Between Soaring Modes of Black Kites and the Fine-Scale Distribution of Updrafts Santos, C., Hanssen, F., Muñoz, A., Onrubia, A., Wikelski, M., May, R., Silva, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Satellite Tracking of White-Tailed Sea Eagles in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania and Brandenburg Krone, O., Treu, G., Grunkorn, T. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Collision Victims and Lattice Towers - Frequency of Collision, Breeding Population and Breeding Success of Birds of Prey in Two Wind Farms in Brandenburg Durr, T., Rasran, L. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Impacts of Wind Turbines on the Population and Nest Site Selection of the Montagu’s Harrier in the Hellweg Börde, North Rhine-Westphalia Joest, R., Griesenbrock, B., Illner, H. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Displacement Raptors, Birds
Distances Between Breeding Sites and White-Tailed Sea Eagles Found Dead Near Wind Turbines in Schleswig-Holstein Grunkorn, T., Nehls, G. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Conclusions, Risk Assessment, Conflict Minimisation, Practical Recommendations, Need for Further Research Hötker, H., Durr, T., Grajetzky, B., Grunkorn, T., Joest, R., Krone, O., Mammen, K., Mammen, U., Nehls, G., Rasran, L., Resetaritz, A., Treu, G. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Birds of Prey and Wind Farms Hötker, H., Krone, O., Nehls, G. Book Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Behavioural Observations of White-Tailed Sea Eagles in the Vicinity of Wind Turbines Grunkorn, T., Gippert, M., Treu, G., Nehls, G. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Calculation of the Probability of a Collision of Territorial Birds of Prey with Wind Turbines Rasran, L., Grajetzky, B., Mammen, U. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Impacts of Wind Turbines on the Population and Nest Site Selection of the Montagu’s Harrier in North Frisia Rasran, L., Thomsen, K. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Collisions of Birds of Prey with Wind Turbines - Analysis of the Circumstances Rasran, L., Durr, T. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Telemetric Monitoring of Montagu’s Harrier in Schleswig-Holstein Grajetzky, B., Nehls, G. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement, Collision Raptors, Birds
Effects of Individuals Lost Due to Wind Turbines on the Time of Occupying a Territory, the Survival of Breeding Territories and the Breeding Success of White-Tailed Sea Eagles (Case Studies) Grunkorn, T., Nehls, G. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement, Collision Raptors, Birds
Population Development and Breeding Success of Birds of Prey in Relation to the Development of Wind Energy Use in Germany Rasran, L., Mammen, U. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Golden Eagle Fatalities and the Continental-Scale Consequences of Local Wind-Energy Generation Katzner, T., Nelson, D., Braham, M., Doyle, J., Fernandez, N., Duerr, A., Bloom, P., Fitzpatrick, M., Miller, T., Culver, R., Braswell, L., DeWoody, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Distribution, Nesting Activities, and Age-Class of Territorial Pairs of Golden Eagles at the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area, California, 2014-16 Kolar, P., Wiens, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Verreauxs' Eagle and Wind Farms: Guidelines for Impact Assessment, Monitoring, and Mitigation BirdLife South Africa Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Quantifying the Demographic Cost of Human-Related Mortality to a Raptor Population Hunt, W., Wiens, J., Law, P., Fuller, M., Hunt, T., Driscoll, D., Jackman, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
A balanced solution to the cumulative threat of industrialized wind farm development on cinereous vultures (Aegypius monachus) in south-eastern Europe Vasilakis, D., Whitfield, D., Kati, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Displaying 81 - 120 of 292 results