Raptors and Land-Based Wind Energy in the United States

Bald Eagle

Wind energy is a critical element of a sustainable energy future; however, like many other energy resources, its development can have negative impacts on wildlife, including many avian species. Impacts to birds can be either direct through collision with wind turbine blades, or indirect through habitat loss from displacement or land use change. The associated infrastructure may pose additional hazards such as collisions with vehicles and electrocution from overhead distribution lines (Drewitt and Langston 2006; Smith and Dwyer 2016).

Some species of raptors are more vulnerable to collisions due to their flight patterns, physiology, and behavior. Many raptor species rely significantly on soaring flight, which is dependent on air currents. Unfortunately, these same air currents are often suitable for wind energy development, leading to an increased risk of collisions with wind turbines (Barrios and Rodriguez 2004; Péron et al. 2017). Additionally, the vision of raptors is more suited for focusing on distant objects, potentially diminishing their awareness of closer obstacles in their immediate vicinity, especially during hunting (Martin 2011; May et al. 2020). Moreover, raptors tend to have delayed sexual maturation and long life spans with relatively low reproductive capacity, resulting in populations that are slow to recover from additive mortality (Beston et al. 2016).

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
A Preliminary Overview of Monitoring for Raptors in Croatia Mazal, V., Mikulic, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Diurnal and nocturnal ranging behaviour by moorland-breeding Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus in Scotland Calladine, J., Morrison, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Visual Fields, Foraging and Collision Vulnerability in Gyps Vultures Martin, G., Portugal, S., Murn, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
The trouble with turbines: An ill wind Subramanian, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Testing an Emerging Paradigm in Migration Ecology Shows Surprising Differences in Efficiency between Flight Modes Duerr, A., Miller, T., Lanzone, M., Brandes, D., Cooper, J., O'Malley, K., Maisonneuve, C., Tremblay, J., Katzner, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Griffon Vulture Mortality at Wind Farms in Southern Spain: Distribution of Fatalities and Active Mitigation Measures de Lucas, M., Ferrer, M., Bechard, M., Muñoz, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
How do diurnal long-distance migrants select flight altitude in relation to wind? Mateos-Rodriguez, M., Liechti, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Shorebirds, Raptors, Passerines, Birds
Best Management Practices for siting, developing, operating, and monitoring renewable energy in the Intermountain West: A Conservationist's Guide Jones, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Displacement, Collision, Avoidance, Attraction Terrestrial Mammals, Raptors, Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions, Ground-Nesting Birds, Birds, Bats
Putting Aeolus to work without the death toll: federal wind farm siting guidelines can mitigate avian and Chiropteran mortality Mensing, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Raptors
Avian and Bat Protection Plan for the Ocotillo Wind Energy Facility Ocotillo Express Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Raptors
New Zealand Falcon Monitoring and Risk Assessment, Hurunui Wind Farm Meridian Energy Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision Raptors, Birds
Searches for dead birds in Smøla wind-power plant area 2011 - annual report Reitan, O. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Reduced Breeding Success in White-Tailed Eagles at Smøla windfarm, Western Norway, is Caused by Mortality and Displacement Dahl, E., Bevanger, K., Nygård, T., Roskaft, E., Stokke, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Displacement, Collision Raptors, Birds
Raptors in Bosnia and Herzegovina - their status and perspectives for monitoring development Kotrosan, D., Hatibovic, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Model-Based Estimation of Collision Risks of Predatory Birds with Wind Turbines Eichhorn, M., Johst, K., Seppelt, R., Drechsler, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
Mortality at wind-farms is positively related to large-scale distribution and aggregation in griffon vultures Carrete, M., Sanchez-Zapata, J., Benitez, J., Lobon, M., Montoya, F., Donazar, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision Raptors, Birds
Where eagles nest, the wind also blows: consolidating habitat and energy needs Wilson, J., Wilson, T. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Development of a Comprehensive Conservation Strategy for the North Shore Region of Minnesota in the Context of Future Wind Power Development Peterson, A., Niemi, G. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Migratory Bird Research for the Proposed County Line Wind Energy Site: Fall 2011 Field Season Gehring, J. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Ground-Nesting Birds, Passerines, Raptors
Effects of wind farms and food scarcity on a large scavenging bird species following an epidemic of bovine spongiform encephalopathy Martinez-Abrain, A., Tavecchia, G., Regan, H., Jimenez, J., Surroca, M., Oro, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement, Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
The effects of wind turbines on white-tailed eagles (Haliaeetus Albicilla) in Hokkaido, Japan Shiraki, S., Kitano, M. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Assessing Avian-Wind Turbine Collision Risk: An Approach Angle Dependent Model Holmstrom, L., Hamer, T., Colclazier, E., Denis, N., Verschuyl, J., Ruche, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Effects of Weather on Avian Migration at Proposed Ridgeline Wind Energy Sites Thomas, P., Labrosse, A., Pomeroy, A., Otter, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Displacement, Collision Raptors, Birds
Avian, Bat and Habitat Cumulative Impacts Associated with Wind Energy Development in the Columbia Plateau Ecoregion Of Eastern Washington and Oregon 2011 Johnson, G., Erickson, W. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Raptors
Characteristics of Soaring Birds' Spring Migration over Inland SE Bulgaria Shurulinkov, P., Daskalova, G., Chakarov, N., Hristov, K., Dyulgerova, S., Gocheva, Y., Cheshmedzhiev, S., Madzharov, M., Dimchev, I. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Shorebirds, Raptors, Birds
Integrating Effects of Supplementary Feeding, Poisoning, Pollutant Ingestion and Wind Farms of Two Vulture Species in Spain using a Population Viability Analysis Garcia-Ripolles, C., Lopez, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Chemicals Raptors, Birds
Assessing the impact of nine established wind farms on birds of prey in Thrace, Greece Carcamo, B., Kret, E., Zografou, C., Vasilakis, D. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds
Wind Power Compensation is not for the Birds: An Opinion from an Environmental Economist Cole, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Birds
Collision risk of White-fronted Geese with wind turbines Sugimoto, H., Matsuda, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors, Waterfowl
Response of Raptors to a Windfarm Garvin, J., Jennelle, C., Drake, D., Grodsky, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Avoidance Raptors, Birds
Potential impact of wind farms on territories of large eagles in southeastern Spain Martinez, J., Calvo, J., Zuberogoita, I., Cerezo, E., Manrique, J., Gomez, G., Nevado, J., Sanchez, M., Sanchez, R., Bayo, J., Pallares, A., Gonzalez, C., Gomez, J., Perez, P., Motos, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Birds, Raptors
Clocaenog Forest Wind Farm Collision Risk Report Model George, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
The precautionary principle and wind-farm planning: data scarcity does not imply absence of effects Carrete, M., Sanchez-Zapata, J., Benitez, J., Lobon, M., Camina, A., Lekuona, J., Montelio, E., Donazar, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
Impact of Terrestrial Wind Farms on Diurnal Raptors: Developing a Spatial Vulnerability Index and Potential Vulnerability Maps Noguera, J., Pérez, I., Mínguez, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Birds, Raptors
Determination of Raptor Migratory Pathways over a Large Landscape Seeland, H. Thesis Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change, Collision Raptors, Birds
The return of the white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) to northern Germany: Modelling the past to predict the future Kruger, O., Grunkorn, T., Struwe-Juhl, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision Raptors, Birds
A study of White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla movements and mortality at a wind farm in Norway Nygård, T., Bevanger, K., Dahl, E., Flagstad, Ø., Follestad, A., Hoel, P., May, R., Reitan, O. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Avoidance, Collision Birds, Raptors
Modelling Human Impacts on the Tasmanian Wedge-Tailed Eagle (Aquila audax fleayi) Bekessy, S., Wintle, B., Gordon, A., Fox, J., Chrisholm, R., Brown, B., Regan, T., Moone, N., Read, S., Burgman, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Habitat Change Raptors, Birds
Map-Based Repowering and Reorganization of a Wind Resource Area to Minimize Burrowing Owl and Other Bird Fatalities Smallwood, K., Neher, L., Bell, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors
Post-Construction Avian Monitoring Study for the Shiloh I Wind Power Project Solano County, California Kerlinger, P., Curry, R., Culp, L., Hasch, A., Jain, A. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind Raptors, Birds, Bats
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