Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3111
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Communication Towers, Lights, and Birds: Successful Methods of Reducing the Frequency of Avian Collisions Gehring, J., Kerlinger, P., Manville, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Lighting Bats, Birds, Fish
Involving the Public in the Impact Assessment of Offshore Renewable Energy Facilities Portman, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Stakeholder Engagement, Human Dimensions
Hong Kong Offshore Wind Farm in Southeastern Waters - Environmental Impact Assessment Hong Kong Offshore Wind Limited Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
COWRIE 2.0 Electromagnetic Fields (EMF) Phase 2: EMF Sensitive Fish Response to EM Emissions from Sub-sea Electricity Cables of the Type used by the Offshore Renewable Energy Industry Gill, A., Huang, Y., Gloyne-Philips, I. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish
The Habitat-Creation Potential of Offshore Wind Farms Elliott, M., Wilson, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Definition of a 5-MW Reference Wind Turbine for Offshore System Development Jonkman, J., Butterfield, S., Musial, W. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Assessing the effects to fishes from pile driving: Application of new hydroacoustic criteria Stadler, J., Woodbury, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
Reflections on Integrating Operations and Maintenance Activities of Offshore Wind Farms and Mariculture Michler-Cieluch, T., Krause, G., Buck, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Cape Wind Final Environmental Impact Statement US Minerals Management Service (MMS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: State of the Art After Two Years of Environmental Monitoring Degraer, S., Brabant, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Fisheries, the environment and offshore wind farms: location, location, location Johnson, M., Rodmell, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
Marine Fish Response to Pile Driving Sound Mueller-Blenkle, C., McGregor, P., Gill, A. Research Study Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Demersal Fish
Aspects of Offshore Renewable Energy and the Alterations of Marine Habitats Wilhelmsson, D. Thesis Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Anholt Offshore Wind Farm Marine Geophysical Investigations Leth, J., Al-Hamdani, Z., Novak, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Concerning an Act on Offshore Renewable Energy Production (the Offshore Energy Act) Norwegian Ministry of Petroleum and Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy
Measurements of Construction Noise During Pile Driving of Offshore Research Platforms and Wind Farms Matuschek, R., Betke, K. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Underwater Noise From Three Types Of Offshore Wind Turbines: Estimation Of Impact Zones For Harbor Porpoises And Harbor Seals Tougaard, J., Henriksen, O., Miller, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Numerical Calculation of the Impact of Offshore Wind Farm Power Stations on Hydrodynamic Conditions Zhang, W., Xia, H., Wang, B. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Strategic Review of Offshore Wind Farm Monitoring Data Associated with FEPA Licence Conditions: Underwater Noise Pattenden, A., Thomsen, F., Walker, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Wind Energy Systems: Environmental Aspects and Impacts Manwell, J., McGowan, J., Rogers, A. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Early colonisation of a concrete offshore windmill foundation by marine biofouling on the Thornton Bank (southern North Sea) Kerckhof, F., Norro, A., Jacques, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
The Effects of Human-Generated Sound on Fish Popper, A., Hastings, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Noise Fish
The Effects Of Anthropogenic Sources Of Sound On Fishes Popper, A., Hastings, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
Resolving Fine-Scale Spatio-Temporal Dynamics in the Harbour Porpoise Phocoena phocoena Skov, H., Thomsen, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Measurement of Wind Turbine Construction Noise at Horns Rev II Betke, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Perceived Concerns and Possible Management Strategies for Governing 'Wind-Farm Mariculture Integration' Michler-Cieluch, T., Krause, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions
Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm Turbine Foundation Faunal Colonisation Diving Survey Fugro EMU Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
On The Influence Of Large Wind Farms On The Upper Ocean Circulation Broström, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Colonization of an Artificial Hard Substrate by Mytilus edulis in the German Bight Joschko, T., Buck, B., Gutow, L. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates
The use of 'ecological risk' for assessing effects of human activities: an example including eutrophication and offshore wind farm construction in the North Sea Nunneri, C., Lenhart, H., Burkhard, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions
Horns Rev II Offshore Wind Farm Monitoring of Migrating Waterbirds Piper, W., Kulik, G., Durinck, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Poseidon Floating Power (Poseidon 37) Floating Power Plant A/S (FPP) Project Site Marine Energy, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Fouling Assemblages on Offshore Wind Power Plants and Adjacent Substrata Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
Horns Rev II Offshore Wind Farm Food Basis for Common Scoter Skov, H., Durinck, J., Erichsen, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
Horns Rev II Offshore Wind Farm Monitoring of Resting Waterbirds Skov, H., Piper, W., Leonhard, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Seabirds, Birds
Barotrauma is a Significant Cause of Bat Fatalities at Wind Turbines Baerwald, E., D'Amours, G., Klug, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Over the Sea and Far Away? A Consideration of the Planning, Politics and Public Perception of Offshore Wind Farms Haggett, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Land-Based Wind Social & Economic Data, Marine Spatial Planning, Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions
Over the sea and far away? A consideration of the planning, politics and public perception of offshore wind farms Haggett, C. Journal Article Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement, Visual Impacts
Scroby Sands Ornithological Monitoring: Assessing the impacts of the Scroby Sands Offshore Wind Farm upon Little Tern Sternula albifrons: summary of monitoring programme 2002-2006 ECON Ecological Consultancy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds, Fish
Kentish Flats Wind Farm Fifth Ornithological Monitoring Report Gill, J., Sales, D., Pinder, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds
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