Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3111
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Offshore wind farms: Effects on the water exchange of the Baltic Sea Burchard, H. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Standard Investigation of the Impacts of Offshore Wind Turbines on the Marine Environment (StUK3) Bellebaum, J., Betke, K., Binder, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Measurement and Reduction of Offshore Wind Turbine Construction Noise Elmer, K., Gerasch, W., Neumann, T. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Annual FEPA Monitoring Report (2005-6) Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Interim Ornithology Chapter Gill, J.P., Mitchell, A., Pinder, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Collision Mortalities at Horseshoe Shoal of Bird Species of Special Concern Hatch, J., Brault, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Waterfowl
Potential Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Noise on Fish Thomsen, F., Judd, A., Lüdemann, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
The Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) on Sleneset and Windpower Jacobsen, K., Rov, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Raptors, Birds
Estimation of seabird numbers in the German North Sea throughout the annual cycle and their biogeographic importance Garthe, S., Sonntag, N., Schwemmer, P. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Perception of Low-Frequency Acoustic Signals by a Harbour Propoise (Phocoena phocoena) in the Presence of Simulated Offshore Wind Turbine Noise Lucke, K., Lepper, P., Hoeve, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Wind Farm - Kriegers Flak: Environmental Impact Assessment Sweden Offshore Wind AB Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Perception of Low-Frequency Acoustic Signals by a Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) in the Presence of Simulated Offshore Wind Turbine Noise Lucke, K., Lepper, P., Hoeve, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Many ways to say ‘no’, different ways to say ‘yes’: Applying Q-Methodology to understand public acceptance of wind farm proposals Ellis, G., Barry, J., Robinson, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement
Tern Observations Near Monomoy Island ESS Group Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Revised Navigational Risk Assessment ESS Group, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Navigation, Human Dimensions
Review Report 2005: The Danish Offshore Wind Farm Demonstration Project: Horns Rev and Nysted Offshore Wind Farms Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring Dong Energy, Vattenfall Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Danish Offshore Wind: Key Environmental Issues Dong Energy, Vattenfall, Danish Energy Agency Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Summary on Harbour Porpoise Monitoring 1999-2006 around Nysted and Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farms Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Offshore Wind Farms and the Environment: Danish Experiences from Horns Rev and Nysted Danish Energy Agency Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Harbour Porpoises on Horns Reef Effects of the Horns Reef Wind Farm Jakob, T., Carstensen, J., Wisz, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
An Investigation into the Effects of Underwater Piling Noise on Salmonids Nedwell, J., Turnpenny, A., Lovell, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Pelagic Fish
Summary on Seal Monitoring 1999-2005 around Nysted and Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farms Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Pinnipeds, Marine Mammals
Harbour Seals at Horns Reef Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Tougaard, J., Tougaard, S., Jensen, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Use of Aerial Surveys to Detect Bird Displacement by Offshore Windfarms Maclean, I., Skov, H., Rehfisch, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
A Report on the Perceptions of the Fishing Industry into the Potential Socio-Economic Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Developments on their Work Patterns and Income Mackinson, S., Curtis, H., Brown, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Long-tailed Duck Report, Winter 2005-2006 ESS Group Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Waterfowl
Potential Impacts to Predator-Prey Relationships as a Result of the Proposed Cape Wind Project in Nantucket Sound ESS Group Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Marine Mammals
Ecological Survey and Impact Assessment for the Proposed Cable Route Corridor and Substation, Walpole, Lincolnshire, & Norfolk Lapwings Consultants Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Draft Fisheries Report of Cape Wind Energy Project ESS Group Inc, Battelle Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Fisheries Data Report South of Tuckernuck Area ESS Group Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Investigation of the Cape Wind Energy Project ESS Group Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes
The Potential Effects on Birds arising from the Onshore Infrastructure of the Proposed Greater Gabbard Offshore Wind Farm Burton, N., Holloway, S., Thewlis, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Wind Farm Related Mortality Among Avian Migrants - A Remote Sensing Study and Model Analysis Desholm, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Simulation of Sediment Transport and Deposition from Cable Burial Operations for the Alternative Site of the Cape Wind Energy Project Swanson, C., Isaji, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Analysis of Effects of Wind Turbine Generator Array for the Alternative Site of the Cape Wind Energy Project Swanson, C., Subbayya, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Horns Rev 2 Offshore Wind Farm EIA Report: Benthic Communities Leonhard, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates
Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm II: EIA Report Fish Jensen, B., Klaustrup, M., Skov, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fish, Environmental Impact Assessment
Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Noise on Marine Mammals and Fish Tomsen, F., Lüdemann, K., Kafemann, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Marine Mammals
Scroby Sands Offshore Wind Farm - Coastal Processes Monitoring Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Final Report on the Effect of Nysted Offshore Wind Farm on Harbour Porpoises Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J., Bech, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Development: Seabed Comparison npower renewables Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
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