Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3097
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
A review on the interactions between engineering and marine life: key information for engineering professionals Dobson, T., Lenchine, V., Bainbridge, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Environmental Impact Assessment
Offshore Wind Facts Deeper Dive: Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) and Offshore Wind Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Do electromagnetic fields from subsea power cables effect benthic elasmobranch behaviour? A risk-based approach for the Dutch Continental Shelf Hermans, A., Winter, H., Gill, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish
Offshore Wind Facts: Fish and Invertebrates Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Fish, Invertebrates
Offshore Wind Facts: Jobs and Workforce Development Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Primary vs grey: A critical evaluation of literature sources used to assess the impacts of offshore wind farms Szostek, C., Edwards-Jones, A., Beaumont, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change, Vessel Strike Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Offshore Wind Facts: Birds and Bats Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Lighting, Noise Bats, Birds
Offshore Wind Facts Deeper Dive: Ocean Hydrodynamics, Offshore Wind Farms, and the Mid Atlantic Bight Cold Pool Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Water Quality
Offshore Wind Facts: Coastal and Marine Habitats Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Offshore Wind Facts: Marine Mammals and Sea Turtles Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Offshore Wind Facts: Property Values and Visual Impacts Special Initiative on Offshore Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Recreation & Tourism, Visual Impacts
Drivers of flight altitude during nocturnal bird migration over the North Sea and implications for offshore wind energy Bradaric, M., Kranstauber, B., Bouten, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2023 Magnus, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Larger wind turbines as a solution to reduce environmental impacts Akhtar, N., Geyer, B., Schrum, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Mapping seabird vulnerability to offshore wind farms in Norwegian waters Fauchald, P., Ollus, V., Ballesteros, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
A numerical study on the effect of asymmetry on underwater noise emission in offshore monopile installation Molenkamp, T., Tsouvalas, A., Metrikine, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Observational and Modeling Approaches for Assessing Impacts of Offshore Wind Development on California Current Upwelling: Workshop Summary Kojima, A., Kilpatrick, T., Jacox, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Ecosystem Processes
What are the potential effects of offshore wind farms on coastal fish and their essential habitats? Henry, S., Couturier, L., Darnaude, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Chemicals, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Fish
Towards sustainable decommissioning: The importance of lifespan extension and standardisation Natuur & Milieu Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Conditions for sustainable decommissioning of offshore wind turbines Kelder, M., van Pelt, A., van Megen, O. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
The global impact of offshore wind farms on ecosystem services Watson, S., Somerfield, P., Lemasson, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
What level of monitoring is enough to detect displacement effects of offshore wind farms? Hall, R., Black, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds, Seabirds
Conditions for nature friendly and circular decommissioning Natuur & Milieu Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Offshore wind energy potential along the Indian Coast considering ecological safeguards Bonthu, S., Purvaja, R., Singh, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Ecological indicators to monitor offshore wind interactions with fisheries resources Methratta, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Planet Wind Documentary Evans, A. Video Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
New England Wind Final Environmental Impact Statement (Final EIS) BOEM Office of Renewable Energy Programs Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Acoustic presence and demographics of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) off southern New England and near a US offshore wind energy area Westell, A., Rowell, T., Posdalijan, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Observations of harbour porpoises in offshore wind farms Final report Leemans, J., Fijn, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Evaluation of offshore wind energy diffusion in long-term scenarios in the Colombian Caribbean Valencia, M., Arango-Aramburo, S., Osorio, A. Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
A synthesis of socioeconomic and sociocultural indicators for assessing the impacts of offshore renewable energy on fishery participants and fishing communities Willis-Norton, E., Mangin, T., Schroeder, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Displacement Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Cumulative effects of offshore wind farms on common guillemots (Uria aalge) in the southern North Sea - climate versus biodiversity? Peschko, V., Schwemmer, H., Mercker, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds, Seabirds
Developing expert scientific consensus on the environmental and societal effects of marine artificial structures prior to decommissioning Knights, A., Lemasson, A., Firth, L. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Life cycle carbon footprint accounting of an offshore wind farm in Southeast China—Simplified models and carbon benchmarks for typhoons Sun, Z., You, X. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment, Stakeholder Engagement
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related to Electromagnetic Frequencies from Buried Transmission Cables Middleton, P., Barnhart, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Invertebrates, Terrestrial Mammals, Human Dimensions
Assessing areas suitable for offshore wind energy considering potential risk to breeding seabirds in northern Japan Obane, H., Kazama, K., Hashimoto, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Underwater noise from vibratory pile driving with non-linear frictional pile–soil interaction Molenkamp, T., Tsetas, A., Tsouvalas, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
BOEM and NOAA North Atlantic Right Whale and Offshore Wind Strategy BOEM Office of Renewable Energy Programs, US Department of Commerce (DOC), NOAA Fisheries Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
American lobster Homarus americanus responses to construction and operation of an offshore wind farm in southern New England Wilber, D., Brown, L., Griffin, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates
Bilan annuel 2023 des études environnementales sur le parc éolien en mer de Saint-Nazaire Parc eolien en mer de St Nazaire Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
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