Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3097
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind South Draft Environmental Impact Statement (DEIS) Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
U.S. Offshore Wind Energy Noise Reduction Associated with Installation of Fixed-Bottom Foundations: Workshop Report Green, R., Farr, H., Ryan, K. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
Towards Digital Twins of the Oceans: The Potential of Machine Learning for Monitoring the Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms on Marine Environments Schneider, J., Klüner, A., Zielinski, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind Construction and Operations Plan for Commercial Lease OCS Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind, LLC Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, Displacement Bats, Birds, Fish, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Visual Impacts
Revolution Wind COP Appendix Y: Fisheries and Benthic Monitoring Plan INSPIRE Environmental Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
The effect of offshore windfarms on hyperbenthic communities in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Vansteelandt, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Hudson South 2 E05 Bat and Bird Acoustic Analysis and Results Summary Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Anglers' support for an offshore wind farm: Fishing effects or clean energy symbolism Bidwell, D., Smythe, T., Tyler, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Bluepoint Wind: Semi-Annual Progress Report (November 1, 2022 – April 30, 2023) Bluepoint Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
A Geospatial Analysis of Species of Interest in US Atlantic Wind Energy Areas O'Brien, B. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals
Passive Acoustic Monitoring of Fin Whales (Balaenoptera physalus) Near Offshore Wind Farm Areas Off the Coast of New Jersey Pepper, B. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Technology Gaps for Bird Monitoring in Relation to Offshore Wind Energy Development Courbis, S., Etter, H., Pacini, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
New insights into the influence of turbines on the behaviour of migrant birds: implications for predicting impacts of offshore wind developments on wildlife Willmott, J., Forcey, G., Vukovich, M. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Birds
CPT-Based Geotechnical Characterization of Foundation Zone Sediments at Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind Farm Development Trandafir, A. C., Adhikari, S., Paralta, P. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Integrated Assessment of Seafloor and Subsurface Site Conditions at Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind Farm Development Varnell, S., Trandafir, A. C., Fortiz, V. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Geo-Data Engagement – A Systems Thinking Approach to Advancing Offshore Wind Farm Development in the US Rovang, K., Hargrave, D., Pallestrant, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Cyclic Strength of Soils at Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind Farm Peralta, P., Vembu, K., Fraser, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Integrated Geoscience Approach Considering Regulatory Requirements and Project Design Essentials to Optimize Timelines Bringing Value to Project, Developer, and Consumer Hargrave, D., Bryant, G., Fraser, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Ocean Wind 1 Construction and Operations Plan Ocean Wind 1 Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions
Magnetic Field Limit and Potential Impact of Offshore Wind Farm Submarine Cables in Ecosystems Li, X., Chen, J., Zhan, H. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind EMF Fish
Dogger Bank D Offshore Wind Farm: Environmental Impact Assessment Scoping Report Royal Haskoning DHV Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Offshore Wind Energy and Marine Biodiversity in the North Sea: Life Cycle Impact Assessment for Benthic Communities Li, C., Coolen, J., Scherer, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment
Effective Stakeholder Engagement for Offshore Wind Energy Development: The State of New York's Fisheries and Environmental Technical Working Groups Brunbauer, M., Press, K., Williams, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) larvae are attracted by low-frequency noise simulating that of operating offshore wind farms Cresci, A., Zhang, G., Durif, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Noise Fish, Pelagic Fish
Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Digital Survey: First Semiannual Report Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
European offshore renewable energy, towards a sustainable future Soukissian, T., O’Hagan, A-M., Azzellino, A. Report Marine Energy, Ocean Current, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, EMF, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
Technology Gaps for Marine Mammal Monitoring in Relation to Offshore Wind Development Courbis, S., Etter, H., Pacini, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Interactive Effects of Climate Change-Induced Range Shifts and Wind Energy Development on Future Economic Conditions of the Atlantic Surfclam Fishery Stromp, S., Scheld, A., Klinck, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related Offshore Aquifers Middleton, P., Barnhart, B. Guidance Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Comparing Atlantic Cod Temporal Spawning Dynamics across a Biogeographic Boundary: Insights from Passive Acoustic Monitoring Van Hoeck, R., Rowell, T., Dean, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Noise Fish, Demersal Fish
An ecological risk assessment for the impacts of offshore wind farms on birds in Australia Reid, K., Baker, G., Woehler, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Passerines, Seabirds
Forage Fish Species Prefer Habitat within Designated Offshore Wind Energy Areas in the U.S. Northeast Shelf Ecosystem Friedland, K., Adams, E., Goetsch, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Pelagic Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Behavioral effects of sound sources from offshore renewable energy construction on the black sea bass (Centropristis striata) and longfin squid (Doryteuthis pealeii) Stanley, J., Caiger, P., Jones, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
Public attitudes of offshore wind energy in Japan: An empirical study using choice experiments Iwata, K., Kyoi, S., Ushifusa, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
In the shadow of nuclear dependency: Competing pathways and the social acceptance of offshore wind energy in France Desvallées, L., de Sartre, X. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
An integrated conceptual model to characterize the effects of offshore wind farms on ecosystem services Baulaz, Y., Mouchet, M., Niquil, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
An ecosystem-wide approach for assessing the spatialized cumulative effects of local and global changes on coastal ecosystem functioning Noguès, Q., Bourdaud, P., Araignous, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Fish
The influence of contact relaxation on underwater noise emission and seabed vibrations due to offshore vibratory pile installation Molenkamp, T., Tsouvalas, A., Metrikine, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Physical Environment
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2022 Magnus, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Offshore Wind Energy or Domestic Seafood? How the Department of the Interior Can Facilitate Both Through Self-Binding Procedures Irwin, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy
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