Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3115
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Scroby Sands Wind Farm Vestas Wind Systems A/S Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Intertidal survey of proposed LAL cable landing at Cleve Hill, September 2004 Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates
WT-Bird: Bird Collision Recording for Offshore Wind Farms Wiggelinkhuizen, E., Rademakers, L., Barhorst, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Measurements of Underwater Noise During Construction of Offshore Wind Farms and Comparison with Background Noise Nedwell, J., Langworthy, J., Howell, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
A Review of Offshore Windfarm Related Underwater Noise Sources Nedwell, J., Howell, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Concerted Action for Offshore Wind Energy Deployment (COD): Overview of Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy Roth, E., Verhoef, L., Dingenouts, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Review of red-throated diver prey species in the Thames Estuary Pollock, C., Barton, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Fish
London Array Offshore Wind Farm Project - Environmental Impact Assessment Scoping Reports Jenner, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Biology and Video Surveys of North Hoyle Wind Turbines 11th-13th August 2004 Bunker, F. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Sandeels in the Wind Farm Area at Horns Reef Jensen, H., Kristensen, P., Hoffmann, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment, Fish, Demersal Fish
Scaling Possible Adverse Effects of Marine Wind Farms on Seabirds: Developing and Applying a Vulnerability Index Garthe, S., Hüppop, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Seabirds, Birds
Base Line Studies North Sea Wind Farms: Final Report Pelagic Fish Grift, R., Tulp, I., Ybema, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Pelagic Fish
Guidance Note for Environmental Impact Assessment in Respect of FEPA and CPA Requirements Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (CEFAS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Review of the Potential Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms on Migrating and Overwintering Swans and Geese in the SEA 5 Area Barton, C., Pollock, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Shorebirds
Development of the Fouling Community on Turbine Foundations and Scour Protections in Nysted Offshore Wind Farm Birklund, J., Petersen, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates
Effects from the Construction of Nysted Offshore Wind Farm on Seals in Rødsand Seal Sanctuary Based on Remote Video Monitoring Edrén, S., Teilmann, J., Dietz, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Hard bottom substrate monitoring Horns Rev offshore wind farm. Annual status report 2003 Leonhard, S., Pedersen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates
Infauna Monitoring Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm: Annual Status Report 2003 Bech, M., Leonhard, S., Pedersen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Towards Standardised Seabirds at Sea Census Techniques in Connection with Environmental Impact Assessments for Offshore Wind Farms in the UK Camphuysen, K., Fox, A., Leopold, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Scroby Sands Seal Monitoring: Analysis of 2003 aerial surveys and summary of baseline data Perrow, M., Skeate, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Marine Mammals
Does the Wind Power Industry Threaten Marbled Murrelets or Do Marbled Murrelets Threaten the Wind Power Industry? Cooper, J., Beauchesne, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision Birds, Seabirds
Bouw en exploitatie van een windmolenpark op de Thorntonbank in de Noordzee: Milieueffectenbeoordeling van het project ingediend door de n.v. C-Power Management Unit of the North Sea Mathematical Models (MUMM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Chemicals, Collision, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Legal & Policy
North Sea Wind Farms NSW Lot 1 Benthic Fauna Jarvis, S., Allen, J., Proctor, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Invertebrates
Power Connections for Offshore Wind Farms Schachner, J. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF
Investigations of Birds During Construction and Operation of Nysted Offshore Wind Farm at Rødsand Kahlert, J., Petersen, I., Fox, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Birds
The remote monitoring of offshore avian movement using bird detection radar at Spurn Head, East Yorkshire Walls, R., Brown, M., Budgey, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Problems and Benefits Associated with the Development of Offshore Wind-Farms OSPAR Commission Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Managing Offshore Wind Developments in the United States: Legal, Environmental and Social Considerations using a Case Study in Nantucket Sound Santora, C., Hade, N., Odell, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
Visual and Radar Observations of Birds in Relation to Collision Risk at the Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Christensen, T., Hounisen, J., Clausager, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Seabirds, Birds
Best Practice Guidance for the Use of Remote Techniques for Observing Bird Behaviour in Relation to Offshore Wind Farms Desholm, M., Fox, A., Beasley, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Shorebirds, Seabirds, Birds
Baseline Studies North Sea Wind Farms: Lot 5 Marine Birds in and Around the Future Sites Nearshore Windfarm (NSW) and Q7 Leopold, M., Camphuysen, K., ter Braak, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Underwater Noise Emissions from Offshore Wind Turbines Betke, K., Schultz-von Glahn, M., Matuschek, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Extensive Open Ocean Aquaculture Development Within Wind Farms in Germany: The Prospect of Offshore Co-Management and Legal Constraints Buck, B., Krause, G., Rosenthal, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Behavioural Reactions of Free-Ranging Porpoises and Seals to the Noise of a Simulated 2 MW Windpower Generator Koschinski, S., Culik, B., Henriksen, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Measurement of Underwater Noise During Piling at the Red Funnel Terminal, Southampton, and Observation of its Affect on Caged Fish Nedwell, J., Turnpenny, A., Langworthy, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Pelagic Fish
Base-Line Investigations of Birds in Relation to an Offshore Wind Farm at Rødsand: Results and Conclusions, 2002 Desholm, M., Kahlert, J., Petersen, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds
A Baseline Assessment of Electromagnetic Fields Generated by Offshore Windfarm Cables Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF
Wake Effects on Middelgrund Windfarm Jørgensen, H., Frandsen, S., Vølund, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Cape Wind Submerged Aquatic Vegetation Diver Survey Woods Hole Group, Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Utgrunden Offshore Wind Farm Measurements of Underwater Noise Ingemansson Technology Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Displaying 3001 - 3040 of 3115 results