Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3115
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Baseline Studies North Sea Wind Farms: Fluxes, Flight Paths and Altitudes of Flying Birds 2003-2004 Krijgsveld, K., Lensink, R., Schekkerman, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds
Environmental effect studies – Status more than two years after the erection of Horns Rev and Nysted Offshore Wind Farms Boesen, C., Andersen, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Wake Effects of Large Offshore Wind Farms Identified from Satellite SAR Christiansen, M., Hasager, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
The Potential for Cooperative Management of Elasmobranchs and Offshore Renewable Energy Development in UK Waters Gill, A., Kimber, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Fish
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Beam Trawl Survey Report Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Physical Environment
Review Report 2004: The Danish Offshore Wind Farm Demonstration Project: Horns Rev and Nysted Offshore Wind Farms Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring Boesen, C., Kjær, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Post-Construction Results from The North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm May, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
An Evaluation of the Wildlife Impacts of Offshore Wind Development Relative to Fossil Fuel Power Production Jarvis, C. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Fish, Birds
Offshore renewable energy: ecological implications of generating electricity in the coastal zone Gill, A. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes
COWRIE 1.5 The Potential Effects of Electromagnetic Fields Generated by Sub-Sea Power Cables Associated with Offshore Wind Farm Developments on Electrically and Magnetically Sensitive Marine Organisms - A Review Gill, A., Gloyne-Philips, I., Neal, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Effects of the Nysted Offshore Wind Farm on Harbour Porpoises Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J., Teilmann, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Avian Collision Risk at an Offshore Wind Farm Desholm, M., Kahlert, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Avoidance Waterfowl, Birds
London Array Offshore Wind Farm Project - Environmental Statement RPS group Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Hard Bottom Substrate Monitoring Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Annual Status Report 2004 Leonhard, S., Pedersen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates
Surveys of Hard Bottom Communities on Foundations in Nysted Offshore Wind Farm and Schönheiders Pulle in 2004 Birklund, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Sand Banks, Sand Transport and Offshore Wind Farms: Technical Report Kenyon, N., Cooper, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Sediment Transport, Physical Environment
Inshore-Offshore Comparison of Parasite Infestation in Mytilus edulis: Implications for Open Ocean Aquaculture Buck, B., Thieltges, D., Walter, U. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Hearing in Fish and their Reactions to Sounds from Offshore Wind Farms Wahlberg, M., Westerberg, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
Nature Conservation Guidance on Offshore Windfarm Development - A Guidance Note on the Implications of the EC Wild Birds and Habitats Directives for Developers Undertaking Offshore Windfarm Developments UK Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
A Strategic Environmental Assessment of the Fish & Shellfish Resources with Respect to Proposed Offshore Wind Farms in the Eastern Irish Sea Lockwood, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fish, Environmental Impact Assessment
The Environmental Case for Wind Power in New Jersey Ridlington, E., Rusch, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Effects of Sound on Fish Hastings, M., Popper, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
Greater Gabbard Offshore Wind Farm Environmental Statement Greater Gabbard Offshore Winds Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
The Need for Integrated Assessment of Large-Scale Offshore Wind Farm Development Kannen, A., Vermaat, J., Salomons, W. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Stakeholder Engagement
Humber Gateway, Environmental Statement: Section 7, Description of the Physical Baseline Environment E.ON Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment
Bird Numbers and Distributions in the Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Area Petersen, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Offshore Wind Farms and Commercial Fisheries in the UK: A Study in Stakeholder Consultation Gray, T., Haggett, C., Bell, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
TADS Investigations of Avian Collision Risk at Nysted Offshore Wind Farm Desholm, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Waterfowl, Seabirds, Passerines, Birds
Scroby Sands Ornithological Monitoring: Assessing the potential impact of the proposed wind farm upon Little tern Sterna albifrons: the construction phase 2004 Perrow, M., Skeate, E., Tomlinson, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds
Seabed Morphology Off Southern Long Island: Studies of Artificial Reefs and Implications for Wind Farms Flood, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Guidance on the Assessment of the Impact of Offshore Wind Farms: Methodology for Assessing the Marine Navigational Safety Risks of Offshore Wind Farms UK Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Navigation
The Offshore Wind Power Debate: Views from Cape Cod Kempton, W., Firestone, J., Lilley, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Gwynt y Môr Offshore Wind Farm Marine Ecology Technical Report Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Advancing Migratory Bird Conservation and Management by Using Radar: An Interagency Collaboration Ruth, J., Barrow, W., Sojda,R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Human Dimensions
Humber Gateway, Environmental Statement: Section 8, Description of the Biological Baseline Environment E.ON Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
London Array Offshore Wind Farm Project: Field Survey Report - Benthic Sampling using Beam Trawls, Otter Trawls and Day Grabs in the Thames Estuary during 2003 and 2004 Centre for Marine and Coastal Studies Ltd (CMACS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
The Development of Marine Based Wind Energy Generation and Inshore Fisheries in UK Waters: Are They Compatible? Rodmell, D., Johnson, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Preliminary Investigations of Bird-Turbine Collisions at Nysted Offshore Wind Farm and Final Quality Control of Thermal Animal Detection System (TADS) Desholm, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Avoidance Waterfowl, Seabirds, Birds
The Impact of Offshore Wind Farms on Bird Life in Southern Kalmar Sound, Sweden Pettersson, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Waterfowl, Birds
Investigations of migratory birds during operation of Horns Rev offshore wind farm. Annual status report 2004 Christensen, T., Hounisen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
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