Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Offshore Wind Farms and their Impact on Fish Abundance and Community Structure Stenberg, C., Dinesen, G., van Deurs, M., Berg, C., Mosegaard, H., Leonhard, S., Groome, T., Støttrup, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
The Added Value of 'Small-Scale' Monitoring of the Soft-Sediment Endobenthos around Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Coates, D., Vanaverbeke, M., Magda, V. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Invertebrates
Short- and Long-Term Effects of an Offshore Wind Farm on Three Species of Sandeel and their Sand Habitat van Deurs, M., Grome, T., Kaspersen, M., Jensen, H., Stenberg, C., Sørensen, J., Støttrup, J., Warnar, T., Mosegaard, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Study on the Marine Growth Effect on the Dynamic Response of Offshore Wind Turbines Shi, W., Park, H., Baek, J., Kim, C., Kim, Y., Shin, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Seabirds & Offshore Wind Farms Monitoring Results 2011 Vanermen, N., Stienen, E., Onkelinx, T., Courtens, W., Van de walle, M., Verschelde, P., Verstraete, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Collision Birds
Pre-Construction Avian and Bat Survey Report Tetra Tech Inc. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Physical Environment
Marine Bird Distribution Along the Oregon Coast Suryan, R., Phillips, E., So, K., Zamon, J., Lowe, R., Stephensen, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change Seabirds, Birds
Wind Energy Plants and Possible Effects on Samandağ Sea Turtles Yalçın-Özdilek, S., Yalçın, S. Magazine Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change Reptiles
Strategic Impact Assessment of Offshore Windpower in Norway - Impacts on Seabirds Lorensten, S., Christensen-Dalsgaard, S., Follestad, A., Langset, M., May, R., Dahl, E., Hamre, Ø. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Vulnerability of Scottish Seabirds to Offshore Wind Turbines Furness, B., Wade, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Raptors, Seabirds, Waterfowl
On the Effect of Structure-Induced Resistance and Mixing on Inflows into the Baltic Sea: A Numerical Model Study Rennau, H., Schimmels, S., Burchard, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Water Quality, Physical Environment
The Interaction of Pelagic, Migratory and Protected Fishes with Marine Renewable Energy Projects: Recent Studies and Knowledge Gaps Nelson, P. Presentation Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, EMF, Habitat Change Fish, Pelagic Fish
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Heading for an Understanding of Environmental Impacts Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Migration and Habitat Use by Seabirds in the Atlantic Flyway: Evaluation of Potential Impacts of Proposed Wind Farms Berlin, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Interactions with Offshore Wind Energy: Birds and Bats Island Institute Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Collision, Changes in Flow, Avoidance, Attraction Seabirds, Birds, Bats
Wind Turbines and Coastal Recreation Demand Landry, C., Allen, T., Cherry, T., Whitehead, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Recreation & Tourism, Human Dimensions
Multi-Criteria Assessment of Offshore Wind Turbine Support Structures Lozano-Minguez, E., Kolios, A., Brennan, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Spatial Factors Affecting Statistical Power in Testing Marine Fauna Displacement Lapeña, B., Wijnberg, K., Stein, A., Hulscher, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Displacement Birds
Harbour Porpoises (Phocoena phocoena) and Wind Farms: A Case Study in the Dutch North Sea Scheidat, M., Tougaard, J., Brasseur, S., Carstensen, J., van Polanen Petel, T., Teilmann, J., Reijnders, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Attraction Marine Mammals
Porpoises North of Sprogø Before, During and After Construction of an Offshore Wind Farm Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Aggregation and Feeding Behaviour of Pouting (Trisopterus luscus) at Wind Turbines in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Reubens, J., Degraer, S., Vincx, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Selected findings from the baseline and targeted monitoring Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Farms - Ecological Effects of Noise and Habitat Alteration on Fish Andersson, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Habitat Change Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates, Fish, Demersal Fish
Intervisibility Analysis of an Offshore Wind Farm Using GIS Tools Errico, A., Guastaferro, F., Oliviero, C., Santamaria, R. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
The Nature Of Scour Development And Scour Protection At Offshore Windfarm Foundations Whitehouse, R., Harris, J., Sutherland, J., Rees, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Early Development of the Subtidal Marine Biofouling on a Concrete Offshore Windmill Foundation on the Thornton Bank (Southern North Sea): First Monitoring Results Kerckhof, F., Rumes, B., Jacques, T., Degraer, S., Norro, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus Migration in Relation to Offshore Wind Farms Griffin, L., Rees, E., Hughes, B. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Fish And Sessile Assemblages Associated With Wind-turbine Constructions In The Baltic Sea Andersson, M., Öhman, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates
Adapting Offshore Wind Power Foundations to Local Environment Hammar, L., Andersson, S., Rosenberg, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Physical Environment, Invertebrates
A Further Review of Sediment Monitoring Data Carroll, B., Cooper, B., Dewey, N., Whitehead, P., Dolphin, T., Rees, J., Judd, A., Whitehouse, R., Harris, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Sediment Transport, Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Early Environmental Impact Assessment and Spatio-Temporal Variability Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Ecosystem Based Modeling and Indication of Ecological Integrity in the German North Sea - Case Study Offshore Wind Parks Burkhard, B., Opitz, S., Lenhart, H., Ahrendt, K., Garthe, S., Mendel, B., Windhorst, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Development of Underwater Flora and Fauna Communities on Hard Substrates of the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee Lengkeek, W., Bouma, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Robin Rigg Offshore Wind Farm: Mid-Construction Scour and Inter-Array Cable Monitoring Surveys E.ON Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Assessment of the Effects of the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ) for Harbour Porpoise (comparison T0 and T1) Scheidat, M., Aarts, G., Bakker, A., Brasseur, S., Carstensen, J., van Leeuwen, P., Leopold, M., van Polanen Petel, T., Reijnders, P., Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Verdaat, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Local Effects of Blue Mussels Around Turbine Foundations in an Ecosystem Model of Nysted Off-Shore Wind Farm, Denmark Maar, M., Bolding, K., Petersen, J., Hansen, J., Timmermann, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Seasonal Distribution Of Harbour Porpoises And Possible Interference Of Offshore Wind Farms In The German North Sea Gilles, A., Scheidat, M., Siebert, U. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals
Epibenthic colonization of concrete and steel pilings in a cold-temperate embayment: a field experiment Andersson, M., Berggren, M., Wilhelmsson, D., Öhman, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
Development of Spatial Information Layers for Commercial Fishing and Shellfishing in UK Waters to Support Strategic Siting of Offshore Windfarms Dunstone, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
The Habitat-Creation Potential of Offshore Wind Farms Elliott, M., Wilson, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
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