Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Aggregation and Feeding Behaviour of Pouting (Trisopterus luscus) at Wind Turbines in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Reubens, J., Degraer, S., Vincx, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Offshore Wind Farms - Ecological Effects of Noise and Habitat Alteration on Fish Andersson, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise, Habitat Change Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates, Fish, Demersal Fish
Intervisibility Analysis of an Offshore Wind Farm Using GIS Tools Errico, A., Guastaferro, F., Oliviero, C., Santamaria, R. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Visual Impacts
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Selected findings from the baseline and targeted monitoring Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Early Development of the Subtidal Marine Biofouling on a Concrete Offshore Windmill Foundation on the Thornton Bank (Southern North Sea): First Monitoring Results Kerckhof, F., Rumes, B., Jacques, T., Degraer, S., Norro, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
The Nature Of Scour Development And Scour Protection At Offshore Windfarm Foundations Whitehouse, R., Harris, J., Sutherland, J., Rees, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus Migration in Relation to Offshore Wind Farms Griffin, L., Rees, E., Hughes, B. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Fish And Sessile Assemblages Associated With Wind-turbine Constructions In The Baltic Sea Andersson, M., Öhman, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Invertebrates
Adapting Offshore Wind Power Foundations to Local Environment Hammar, L., Andersson, S., Rosenberg, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Physical Environment, Invertebrates
A Further Review of Sediment Monitoring Data Carroll, B., Cooper, B., Dewey, N., Whitehead, P., Dolphin, T., Rees, J., Judd, A., Whitehouse, R., Harris, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Sediment Transport, Physical Environment
Introduction: offshore wind energy development in the Belgian part of the North Sea & anticipated impacts Brabant, R., Jacques, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
Ecosystem Based Modeling and Indication of Ecological Integrity in the German North Sea - Case Study Offshore Wind Parks Burkhard, B., Opitz, S., Lenhart, H., Ahrendt, K., Garthe, S., Mendel, B., Windhorst, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Seasonal variation and vertical zonation of the marine biofouling on a concrete offshore windmill foundation on the Thornton Bank (southern North Sea) Kerckhof, F., Rumes, B., Norro, A., Jacques, T., Degraer, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Early Environmental Impact Assessment and Spatio-Temporal Variability Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Development of Underwater Flora and Fauna Communities on Hard Substrates of the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee Lengkeek, W., Bouma, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Robin Rigg Offshore Wind Farm: Mid-Construction Scour and Inter-Array Cable Monitoring Surveys E.ON Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Assessment of the Effects of the Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee (OWEZ) for Harbour Porpoise (comparison T0 and T1) Scheidat, M., Aarts, G., Bakker, A., Brasseur, S., Carstensen, J., van Leeuwen, P., Leopold, M., van Polanen Petel, T., Reijnders, P., Teilmann, J., Tougaard, J., Verdaat, H. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Marine Mammals
Local Effects of Blue Mussels Around Turbine Foundations in an Ecosystem Model of Nysted Off-Shore Wind Farm, Denmark Maar, M., Bolding, K., Petersen, J., Hansen, J., Timmermann, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Seasonal Distribution Of Harbour Porpoises And Possible Interference Of Offshore Wind Farms In The German North Sea Gilles, A., Scheidat, M., Siebert, U. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals
Epibenthic colonization of concrete and steel pilings in a cold-temperate embayment: a field experiment Andersson, M., Berggren, M., Wilhelmsson, D., Öhman, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
Development of Spatial Information Layers for Commercial Fishing and Shellfishing in UK Waters to Support Strategic Siting of Offshore Windfarms Dunstone, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
The Habitat-Creation Potential of Offshore Wind Farms Elliott, M., Wilson, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: State of the Art After Two Years of Environmental Monitoring Degraer, S., Brabant, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Aspects of Offshore Renewable Energy and the Alterations of Marine Habitats Wilhelmsson, D. Thesis Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm Turbine Foundation Faunal Colonisation Diving Survey Fugro EMU Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Colonization of an Artificial Hard Substrate by Mytilus edulis in the German Bight Joschko, T., Buck, B., Gutow, L., Schröder, A. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates
Horns Rev II Offshore Wind Farm Monitoring of Migrating Waterbirds Piper, W., Kulik, G., Durinck, J., Skov, H., Leonhard, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Waterfowl
Fouling Assemblages on Offshore Wind Power Plants and Adjacent Substrata Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
Horns Rev II Offshore Wind Farm Food Basis for Common Scoter Skov, H., Durinck, J., Erichsen, A., Kloster, R., Møhlenberg, F., Leonhard, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Ecosystem Processes, Birds
Avian Issues for Offshore Wind Development Allison, T., Jedrey, E., Perkins, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Waterfowl
Effect Studies Offshore Wind Farm Egmond aan Zee: Progress Report on Fluxes and Behaviour of Flying Birds Krijgsveld, K., Fijn, R., Heunks, C., van Horssen, P., de Fouw, J., Collier, M., Poot, M., Meesters, E., Dirksen, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds
Ecological Risk as a Tool for Evaluating the Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Construction in the North Sea Nunneri, C., Lenhart, J., Burkhard, B., Windhorst, W. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Water Quality
Review of Cabling Techniques and Environmental Effects Applicable to the Offshore Wind Farm Industry UK Department for Business Innovation & Skills (BIS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Review of the Reef Effects of Offshore Wind Farm Structures and their Potential for Enhancement and Mitigation UK Department for Business Innovation & Skills (BIS) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Populationsdynamik von kommerziell genutzten Fischarten in (durch Offshore- Windkraftanlagen) veränderter Ökosystemstruktur Diembeck, D. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish
Robin Rigg Monitoring Cable Route Benthic Macro-Invertebrate Data Reports: 2007-2011 Entec Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Farms: Their Impacts, and Potential Habitat Gains as Artificial Reefs, in Particular for Fish Wilson, J. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Fish
Worldwide Synthesis and Analysis of Existing Information Regarding Environmental Effects of Alternative Energy Uses on the Outer Continental Shelf Michel, J., Dunagan, H., Boring, C., Healy, E., Evans, W., Dean, J., McGillis, A., Hain, J. Report Wind Energy, Wave, OTEC, Fixed Offshore Wind, Ocean Current, Marine Energy Habitat Change
Robin Rigg Monitoring Windfarm Site Benthic Macro Invertebrate Data Reports: 2007-2011 Entec Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Rhyl Flats Offshore Wind Farm Monitoring Statement (Version 1.4) npower renewables Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
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