Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Evidence for the effects of decommissioning man-made structures on marine ecosystems globally: a systematic map Lemasson, A., Somerfield, P., Schratzberger, M., McNeill, C., Nunes, J., Pascoe, C., Watson, S., Thompson, M., Couce, E., Knights, A. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
Dominant Frequency Extraction for Operational Underwater Sound of Offshore Wind Turbines Using Adaptive Stochastic Resonance Wang, R., Xu, X., Zou, Z., Huang, L., Tao, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Physical Environment
International assessment of priority environmental issues for land-based and offshore wind energy development Green, R., Gill, E., Hein, C., Couturier, L., Mascarenhas, M., May, R., Newell, D., Rumes, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
Windfarms, fishing and benthic recovery: Overlaps, risks and opportunities Dunkley, F., Solandt, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Spatial assessment of benthic compensatory habitats for offshore wind farm impacts Ward, O., Aberson, M., Kirby, D., Chaverra, A., Roberts, A., Cross, K., Warner, I., Reach, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
Powering Healthy Seas: Accelerating Nature Positive Offshore Wind Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Reviewing the ecological impacts of offshore wind farms Galparsoro, I., Menchaca, I., Garmendia, J., Borja, A., Maldonado, A., Iglesias, G., Bald, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
Generalized changes of benthic communities after construction of wind farms in the southern North Sea Coolen, J., Vanaverbeke, J., Dannheim, J., Garcia, C., Birchenough, S., Krone, R., Beermann, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Invertebrates
Chasing the offshore wind farm wind-wake-induced upwelling/downwelling dipole Floeter, J., Pohlmann, T., Harmer, A, Mollmann, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Wind Lease Issuance, Site Characterization, and Site Assessment: Central and Northern California Reeb, D., Schroeder, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Offshore Wind Priority Conflict Topics for Marine Mammals and Birds Courbis, S., Pacini, A., Williams, K., Dodgin, S., Jenkens, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Wind energy in the city: Hong Kong’s offshore wind energy generation potential, deployment plans, and ecological pitfalls Delina, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Collision, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Human Dimensions
Environmental Compatibility of the Parc Tramuntana Offshore Wind Project in Relation to Marine Ecosystems Diez-Caballero, K., Troiteiro, S., Garcia-Alba, J., Vidal, R., Gonzalez, M., Ametller, S., Juan, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Unravelling the ecological impacts of large-scale offshore wind farms in the Mediterranean Sea Lloret, J., Turiel, A., Solé, J., Berdalet, E., Sabatés, A., Olivares, A., Gili, J., Vila-Subirós, J., Hardy, P-Y., Sardá, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Recreation & Tourism
Essential Environmental Concepts for the Offshore Wind Energy Sector in Europe Stephenson, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Marine Spatial Planning
DRAFT Ocean Wind 1 Offshore Wind Farm Biological Assessment BOEM Office of Renewable Energy Programs Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Annual environmental report 2021 – Belwind Belwind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Environmental Data Catalog for the Morro Bay Wind Energy Area Johnson, C., Currier, C., Howar, J., Elliott, M., Rockwood, C., Jahncke, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related to High Voltage Direct Current Cooling Systems Middleton, P., Barnhart, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Scour and Cable Protection Decommissioning Study Peritus International Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Density maps of the herring gull for the Dutch continental shelf Soudijn, F., Chen, C., Potiek, A., van Donk, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
The reef effect induced by wind farms and their grid connection Couturier, L., Lecaillon, G., Lenfant, P., Thiriet, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Climate change effects on the ecophysiology and ecological functioning of an offshore wind farm artificial hard substrate community Voet, H., van Colen, C., Vanaverbeke, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions
How can the impacts of an operating wind farm on marine mammals be assessed? Couturier, L., Curé, C., Labach, H., Martinez, L., Vincent, C., Jung, J-L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals
Offshore wind farm effects on flounder and gadid dietary habits and condition on the northeastern US coast Wilber, D., Brown, L., Griffin, M., DeCelles, G., Carey, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Physical Environment
Application of Monte Carlo and Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Processes for ranking floating wind farm locations Díaz, H., Teixeira, A., Soares, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Birds, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Recreation & Tourism
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related to Decommissioning Offshore Wind Facilities Fernandez, K., Middleton, P., Salerno, J., Barnhart, B., Bruggeman, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
A risk-based method to prioritize cumulative impacts assessment on marine biodiversity and research policy for offshore wind farms in France Brignon, J., Lejart, M., Nexer, M., Michel, S., Quentric, A., Theibaud, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Cumulative population-level effects of habitat loss on seabirds 'Kader Ecologie en Cumulatie 4.0' Soudijn, F., van Donk, S., Leopold, M., van der Wal, J., Hin, V. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Effects of pile driving sound on local movement of free-ranging Atlantic cod in the Belgian North Sea Auteurs van der Knaap, I., Slabbekoorn, H., Moens, T., Van den Eynde, D., Reubens, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Fish
Weakly Supervised Detection of Marine Animals in High Resolution Aerial Images Berg, P., Maia, D., Pham, M., Lefèvre, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Marine Mammals
What’s in My Toolkit? A Review of Technologies for Assessing Changes in Habitats Caused by Marine Energy Development Hemery, L., Mackereth, K., Tugade, L. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Sampling hard substrates in Dutch offshore: Work plan towards an offshore wind farm hard substrate sampling & monitoring programme in the Netherlands Coolen, J., Wijnhoven, S., Bergsma, J., Mavraki, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment
Beatrice Offshore Wind Farm Post-Construction Monitoring Year 2 (2021): Benthic Grab Survey Report Markham, C., Hubble, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind COP Appendix II-H: Benthic Monitoring Plan Morandi, A., Berkman, S., Zottoli, J., DiPreta, G., Davies, S., Rowe, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Attraction, avoidance and habitat use at various spatial scales Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B., Vigin, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
An indicator for assessing the status of marine-bird habitats affected by multiple human activities: A novel statistical approach Mercker, M., Dierschke, V., Camphuysen, K., Kreutle, A., Markones, N., Vanermen, N., Garthe, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Automatic Segregation of Pelagic Habitats Plonus, R-M., Vogl, S., Floeter, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
A Review of Biodiversity Data Needs and Monitoring Protocols for the Offshore Wind Energy Sector in the Baltic Sea and North Sea Stephenson, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Ecological Baseline Studies of the US Outer Continental Shelf Willmot, J., Forcey, G., Vukovich, M., McGovern, S., Clerc, J., Carter, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
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