Short Science Summary: Offshore Wind Farms as Stepping Stones for Non-indigenous Species

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One of the most important effects of offshore wind farms is the unintentional provision of a new habitat which invariably is rapidly colonized by hard substrate species. Turbine foundations provide hard vertical substrates and, depending on the structure and scour protection used, varying degrees of habitat complexity. These novel surfaces span the full water column from the splash zone to the seafloor, often in areas where comparable natural hard surfaces are absent. Non-indigenous species (NIS) are species that did not occur in a particular geographic region, such as the North Sea, prior to a certain date (e.g., the beginning of the 17th century). They consist of species introduced by human activities outside their natural past or present range (introduced species), and species that spread by their own means (range expanding species) due to rising temperatures or other factors. As ocean sprawl in shallow and coastal waters has favored NIS, there is concern that increasing development of offshore wind farms will accelerate this phenomenon. This summary represents a general overview of the research, produced by WREN under IEA Wind. 

The table below contains the literature relevant to this summary document and will continue to be updated as new literature is added to Tethys.

Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Cumulative population-level effects of habitat loss on seabirds 'Kader Ecologie en Cumulatie 4.0' Soudijn, F., van Donk, S., Leopold, M., van der Wal, J., Hin, V. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Effects of pile driving sound on local movement of free-ranging Atlantic cod in the Belgian North Sea Auteurs van der Knaap, I., Slabbekoorn, H., Moens, T., Van den Eynde, D., Reubens, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Fish
Weakly Supervised Detection of Marine Animals in High Resolution Aerial Images Berg, P., Maia, D., Pham, M., Lefèvre, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Marine Mammals
What’s in My Toolkit? A Review of Technologies for Assessing Changes in Habitats Caused by Marine Energy Development Hemery, L., Mackereth, K., Tugade, L. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Beatrice Offshore Wind Farm Post-Construction Monitoring Year 2 (2021): Benthic Grab Survey Report Markham, C., Hubble, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind COP Appendix II-H: Benthic Monitoring Plan Morandi, A., Berkman, S., Zottoli, J., DiPreta, G., Davies, S., Rowe, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates, Physical Environment
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Attraction, avoidance and habitat use at various spatial scales Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B., Vigin, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
An indicator for assessing the status of marine-bird habitats affected by multiple human activities: A novel statistical approach Mercker, M., Dierschke, V., Camphuysen, K., Kreutle, A., Markones, N., Vanermen, N., Garthe, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Automatic Segregation of Pelagic Habitats Plonus, R-M., Vogl, S., Floeter, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
A Review of Biodiversity Data Needs and Monitoring Protocols for the Offshore Wind Energy Sector in the Baltic Sea and North Sea Stephenson, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, EMF, Entanglement, Habitat Change, Noise Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality
Ecological Baseline Studies of the US Outer Continental Shelf Willmot, J., Forcey, G., Vukovich, M., McGovern, S., Clerc, J., Carter, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Comparison of Environmental Effects from Different Offshore Wind Turbine Foundations (2021 Revision) Horwath, S., Hassrick, J., Grismala, R., Diller, E., Krebs, J., Manhard, R. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Reptiles
Marine Mammals Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts Southall, B., Morse, L., Williams, K., Jenkins, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, Habitat Change, Noise Marine Mammals
Sea Turtle Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts Gitschlag, G., Perry, R., Williams, K., Jenkins, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Reptiles
Benthos Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts Degraer, S., Hutchison, Z., LoBue, C., Williams, K., Gulka, J., Jenkins, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment
Bird Workgroup Report for the State of the Science Workshop on Wildlife and Offshore Wind Energy 2020: Cumulative Impacts Cook, A., Williams, K., Jenkins, E., Gulka, J., Liner, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Birds
Conservation Organizations Comments on June 21, 2021 OSW Workshop Cullum, L., Hislop, K., Aylesworth, S., Eriksen, R., Flick, P., George, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Marine Mammals
Environmental impacts of offshore wind installation, operation and maintenance, and decommissioning activities: A case study of Brazil Hernández Carrascal, O., Shadman, M., Amiri, M., Silva, C., Estefen, S., La Rovere, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore wind turbine operations and maintenance: A state-of-the-art review Ren, Z., Verma, A., Li, Y., Teuwen, J., Jiang, Z. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Marine Spatial Planning
Working Group on Marine Benthal and Renewable Energy Developments (WGMBRED) ICES Working Group on Marine Renewable Energy (WGMRE) Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Offshore Windfarm Footprint of Sediment Organic Matter Mineralization Processes De Borger, E., Ivanov, E., Capet, A., Braeckman, U., Vanaverbeke, J., Grégoire, M., Soetaert, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Invertebrates
Impacts of Offshore Wind Energy on Seafood Sectors: A Macroeconomic Perspective of the Energy-Food Nexus Qu, Y. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Hydrodynamic Modeling, Particle Tracking and Agent-Based Modeling of Larvae in the U.S. Mid-Atlantic Bight Johnson, T., van Berkel, J., Mortensen, L., Bell, M., Tiong, I., Hernandez, B., Snyder, D., Thomsen, F., Petersen, O. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Environmental Justice, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Characterisation of the Potential Impacts of Subsea Power Cables Associated with Offshore Renewable Energy Projects Taormina, B., Quillienn, N., Lejart, M., Carlier, A., Desroy, N., Laurans, M., Reynaud, M., Perignon, Y., Erussard, H., Derrien-Courtel, S., Le Gal, A., Derrien, R., Jolivet, A., Chavaud, S., Degret, V., Saffroy, D., Pagot, J., Barillier, A. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates
Spatial and temporal analysis of cumulative environmental effects of offshore wind farms in the North Sea basin Gusatu, L., Menegon, S., Depellegrin, D., Zuidema, C., Faaij, A., Yamu, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Physical Environment, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
South Fork Wind Farm Construction and Operations Plan Ørsted, Eversource Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Evaluating receiver contributions to acoustic positional telemetry: a case study on Atlantic cod around wind turbines in the North Sea van der Knaap, I., Slabbekoorn, H., Winter, H., Moens, T., Reubens, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change Fish, Pelagic Fish
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related to Avian Species Research Fernandez, K., Middleton, P., Salerno, J., Barnhart, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Birds
Multi-Disciplinary and Multi-Scale Assessment of Marine Renewable Energy Structure in a Tidal System Raoux, A., Robin, I., Pezy, J., Bennis, A., Dauvin, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Tidal, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates
Vineyard Wind 1 Final Environmental Impact Statement (FEIS) Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Scour Protections for Offshore Foundations of Marine Energy Harvesting Technologies: A Review Fazeres-Ferradosa, T., Chambel, J., Taveira-Pinto, F., Rosa-Santos, P., Giannini, G., Haerens, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment
ROSA Offshore Wind Project Monitoring Framework and Guidelines ROSA Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
Offshore wind farms and the attraction-production hypothesis: insights from a combination of stomach content and stable isotope analyses Mavraki, N., Degraer, S., Vanaverbeke, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish
Atlantic Shores Offshore Wind COP Appendix II-J: Essential Fish Habitat Assessment Environmental Design & Research, Landscape Architecture, Engineering, & Environmental Services, D.P.C. (EDR) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish
Revolution Wind COP Appendix Z1: Assessment of Impacts to Marine Mammals, Sea Turtles, and ESA-Listed Fish Species CSA Ocean Sciences Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Drivers of European bat population change: a review reveals evidence gaps Browning, E., Barlow, K., Burns, F., Hawkins, C., Boughey, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Bats, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Integrating Social and Ecological Research on the Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in North America ten Brink, T., Dalton, T., Livermore, J. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Exploring the role of offshore wind in restoring priority marine habitats Robertson, M., Locke, S., Uttley, M., Helmer, L., Kean-Hammerson, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Wind Energy Technologies Office Multi-Year Program Plan Fiscal Years 2021—2025 Marlay, R., Ahlgrimm, J., Clapper, M., Dougherty, P., Gonzalez, I., Hartman, E., Lemke, A., Tusing, R. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement
Setting the Context for Offshore Wind Development Effects on Fish and Fisheries Gill, A., Degraer, S., Lipsky, A., Mavraki, N., Methratta, E., Brabant, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
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