Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3120
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Hydrodynamic Modeling, Particle Tracking and Agent-Based Modeling of Larvae in the U.S. Mid-Atlantic Bight Johnson, T., van Berkel, J., Mortensen, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning
2021 JNCC Offshore Wind Evidence and Change Programme: Offshore Wind Environmental Evidence Register Joint Nature Conservation Committee (JNCC) Website Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Site Assessment Plan: Beacon Wind AECOM Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Wind energy's bycatch: Offshore wind deployment impacts on hydropower operation and migratory fish Pfeiffer, O., Nock, D., Baker, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Resolving Key Uncertainties of Seabird Flight and Avoidance Behaviours at Offshore Wind Farms: Annual report for April 2020 – October 2020 Tjørnløv, R., Skov, H., Armitage, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds, Seabirds
Nobelwind Offshore Energy: Annual Work Report 2020 Nobelwind Offshore Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Annual environmental report 2020 – Belwind Belwind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Navigation
Vietnam’s Policy for Promoting Offshore Wind Power and Environmental Impact Assessment Son, N., Gam, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment, Legal & Policy
State of the Science Workshop on Offshore Wind and Wildlife 2020: Cumulative Impacts New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles
Evaluating the fish aggregation effect of wind turbine facilities by using scientific echo sounder in Nanlong wind farm area, western Taiwan Huang, T., Lu, H., Lin, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction Fish, Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Characterisation of the Potential Impacts of Subsea Power Cables Associated with Offshore Renewable Energy Projects Taormina, B., Quillienn, N., Lejart, M. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change Physical Environment, Fish, Invertebrates
Overview of the effects of offshore wind farms on fisheries and aquaculture Van Hoey, G., Bastardie, F., Birchenough, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
A modelling evaluation of electromagnetic fields emitted by buried subsea power cables and encountered by marine animals: considerations for marine renewable energy development Hutchison, Z., Gill, A., Sigray, P. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF Fish, Invertebrates
Spatial and temporal analysis of cumulative environmental effects of offshore wind farms in the North Sea basin Gusatu, L., Menegon, S., Depellegrin, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Physical Environment, Fish, Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions
Vineyard Wind 1 Construction and Operations Plan Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data, Stakeholder Engagement
The Expected Impact of Marine Energy Farms Operating in Island Environments with Mild Wave Energy Resources - A Case Study in the Mediterranean Sea Rusu, L., Onea, F., Rusu, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
South Fork Wind Farm Construction and Operations Plan Ørsted, Eversource Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change, Lighting, Noise Birds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Anthropogenic Sound Exposure-Induced Stress in Captive Dolphins and Implications for Cetacean Health Yang, W., Chen, C., Chuah, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
HELCOM Guidelines for monitoring continuous noise Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Insect fatalities at wind turbines as biodiversity sinks Voigt, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Invertebrates
Optimistic with reservations: The impacts of the United States' first offshore wind farm on the recreational fishing experience Smythe, T., Bidwell, D., Tyler, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Vineyard Wind 2020 Survey Season Annual Report: American Lobster, Black Sea Bass, Larval Lobster Abundance Survey, and Lobster Tagging Study of the 501N Study Area Stokesbury, K., Cassidy, K., Lowery, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates
Movement pattern of red seabream Pagrus major and yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata around Offshore Wind Turbine and the neighboring habitats in the waters near Goto Islands, Japan Karama, K., Matsushita, Y., Inoue, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Pelagic Fish
ThruTracker: Open-Source Software for 2-D and 3-D Animal Video Tracking Corcoran, A., Schirmacher, M., Black, E. Report Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Bats, Birds
Uncharted waters: Exploring coastal recreation impacts, coping behaviors, and attitudes towards offshore wind energy development in the United States Ferguson, M., Evensen, D., Ferguson, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Recreation & Tourism, Social & Economic Data, Visual Impacts
Wildlife Data Standardization and Sharing: Environmental Data Transparency for New York State Offshore Wind Energy New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Ocean Justice: Strategies for an Equitable Implementation of North Carolina’s Offshore Wind Industry Schroeger, J. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Guidelines for Lighting and Marking of Structures Supporting Renewable Energy Development Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Guidance Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Lighting Bats, Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Review of tracking devices to study spatiotemporal disturbance of seabirds by offshore wind farms Potiek, A., Duijns, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction Birds, Seabirds
Potential ecosystem effects of large upscaling of offshore wind in the North Sea Zijl, F., Laan, S., Emmanouil, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Ecosystem effects of large scale upscaling of offshore wind on the North Sea van Duren, L., Zijl, F., van Kessel, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Birds, Marine Mammals
Resource Occurrence and Productivity in Existing and Proposed Wind Energy Lease Areas on the Northeast US Shelf Friedland, K., Methratta, E., Gill, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Invertebrates
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2020 Magnus, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Evaluating receiver contributions to acoustic positional telemetry: a case study on Atlantic cod around wind turbines in the North Sea van der Knaap, I., Slabbekoorn, H., Winter, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Habitat Change Fish, Pelagic Fish
The Rockhopper: a compact and extensible marine autonomous passive acoustic recording system Klinck, H., Winiarski, D., Mack, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
Digital Aerial Wildlife Survey of BOEM Lease Area OCS-A 520 (Beacon Wind) Annual Report: December 2019 to November 2020 Arundale, M., Goulding, A., Rogerson, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Risk Assessment to Model Encounter Rates between Large Whales and Sea Turtles and Vessel Traffic from Offshore Wind Energy on the Atlantic OCS Barkaszi, M., Fonseca, M., Foster, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Vessel Strike Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Human Dimensions, Navigation
Combining offshore wind farms, nature conservation and seafood: Lessons from a Dutch community of practice Steins, N., Veraart, J., Klostermann, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Marine Spatial Planning, Stakeholder Engagement
Megafauna Aerial Surveys in the Wind Energy Areas of Massachusetts and Rhode Island with Emphasis on Large Whales: Interim Report Campaign 6A, 2020 O'Brien, O., McKenna, K., Pendleton, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
An Evaluation of the Potential Impact of Extracting Marine Renewable Energy in the Coastal Environment of the Black Sea Zburlea, L., Rusu, E. Journal Article Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Collision, EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
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