Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3111
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Public attitudes of offshore wind energy in Japan: An empirical study using choice experiments Iwata, K., Kyoi, S., Ushifusa, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
In the shadow of nuclear dependency: Competing pathways and the social acceptance of offshore wind energy in France Desvallées, L., de Sartre, X. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
Behavioral effects of sound sources from offshore renewable energy construction on the black sea bass (Centropristis striata) and longfin squid (Doryteuthis pealeii) Stanley, J., Caiger, P., Jones, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish
An integrated conceptual model to characterize the effects of offshore wind farms on ecosystem services Baulaz, Y., Mouchet, M., Niquil, N. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Interactive Effects of Climate Change-Induced Range Shifts and Wind Energy Development on Future Economic Conditions of the Atlantic Surfclam Fishery Stromp, S., Scheld, A., Klinck, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Technology Gaps for Marine Mammal Monitoring in Relation to Offshore Wind Development Courbis, S., Etter, H., Pacini, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals
Supporting National Environmental Policy Act Documentation for Offshore Wind Energy Development Related Offshore Aquifers Middleton, P., Barnhart, B. Guidance Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Physical Environment, Human Dimensions
An ecosystem-wide approach for assessing the spatialized cumulative effects of local and global changes on coastal ecosystem functioning Noguès, Q., Bourdaud, P., Araignous, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes, Fish
Thornton Bank Offshore Wind Farm Annual Report 2022 Magnus, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change, Noise, Vessel Strike Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Physical Environment, Sediment Transport, Water Quality, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
The influence of contact relaxation on underwater noise emission and seabed vibrations due to offshore vibratory pile installation Molenkamp, T., Tsouvalas, A., Metrikine, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Physical Environment
Offshore Wind Energy or Domestic Seafood? How the Department of the Interior Can Facilitate Both Through Self-Binding Procedures Irwin, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Legal & Policy
Effects of offshore wind farms on suspended particulate matter derived from satellite remote sensing Brandao, I., van der Molen, J., van der Wal, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
Monitoring Framework for Automated Radio Telemetry at Offshore Wind Projects in the U.S. Atlantic Loring, P., Carlson, E., Gobeille, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Bats, Birds
Anholt Offshore Windfarm - Stabilisation of Cable Protection Systems and Cables at Scour Protected Monopile Locations and the Offshore Substation Grindlay, S., Fischer, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment
Wind Energy Contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals: Case Study on London Array Olabi, A., Obaideen, K., Abdelkareem, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy, Social & Economic Data
Monitoring of Marine Life During Offshore Wind Energy Development—Guidelines and Recommendations Kershaw, F., Jones, A., Folsom-O’Keefe, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Human Dimensions
Increased food availability at offshore wind farms affects trophic ecology of plaice Pleuronectes platessa Buyse, J., Hostens, K., Degraer, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Physical Environment
eDNA metabarcoding reveals distinct fish and invertebrate diversity patterns in the shallow and well-mixed Belgian part of the North Sea Cornelis, I., De Backer, A., Vanhollebeke, J. Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates
Constitutional aspects of ecological safety in relation to offshore wind farms in the British and Polish legal systems Drewek, M., Tretyn, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Potential biological impacts of very low frequency acoustical energy produced by offshore wind turbine energy generation Stocker, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Birds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Impacts of human activities on the supply of marine ecosystem services: A conceptual model for offshore wind farms to aid quantitative assessments Van de Pol, L., Van der Biest, K., Taelman, S. E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes
A framework for improving treatment of uncertainty in offshore wind assessments for protected marine birds Searle, K., O'Brien, S., Jones, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Seabirds, Shorebirds
Revolution Wind Construction and Operations Plan Vanasse Hangen Brustlin Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Reptiles, Sea Turtles, Human Dimensions
Stakeholder Engagement in California Offshore Wind: A Summary from CLEE’s 2022 Convenings and a 2023 Outlook Hoff, K., Segal, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
Implications of offshore wind energy developments in coastal and maritime tourism and recreation areas: An analytical overview Machado, J., Andrés, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Recreation & Tourism
Fisheries and Offshore Wind Interactions: Synthesis of Science Hogan, F., Hooker, B., Jensen, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Fish, Invertebrates, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Managing human activity and marine mammals: A biologically based, relativistic risk assessment framework Southall, B., Tollit, D., Amaral, J. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
The Role of Fishery-Independent Bottom Trawl Surveys in Providing Regional and Temporal Context to Offshore Wind Farm Monitoring Studies Gervelis, B., Wilber, D., Brown, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Resolving Key Uncertainties of Seabird Flight and Avoidance Behaviours at Offshore Wind Farms: Final Report for the study period 2020-2021 Tjørnløv, R., Skov, H., Armitage, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Birds, Seabirds
Opportunistic Offshore Sighting of a Tricolored Bat (Perimyotis subflavus) Bort Thornton, J., Richlen, M., McDonald, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Displacement, Habitat Change Bats
Long-Term Succession on Offshore Wind Farms and the Role of Species Interactions Zupan, M., Rumes, B., Vanaverbeke, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction Invertebrates
Development of a computable general equilibrium model based on integrated macroeconomic framework for ocean multi-use between offshore wind farms and fishing activities in Scotland Qu, Y., Hooper, T., Austen, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Social & Economic Data
Engaging stakeholders in marine spatial planning for collaborative scoring of conflicts and synergies within a spatial tool environment Bonnevie, I., Hansen, H., Schrøder, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning, Stakeholder Engagement
Revolution Wind COP Appendix P3: Underwater Acoustic Modeling Analysis Kusel, E., Weirathmueller, M., Zammit, K. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
5th ScotMER Symposium: ScotMER Collaboration Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
5th ScotMER Symposium: Research Access to Wind Farms Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
5th ScotMER Symposium: Forward Look for ScotMER Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Underwater noise characteristics of offshore exploratory drilling and its impact on marine mammals Huang, L-F., Xu, X-M., Yang, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
5th ScotMER Symposium: Compensatory Measures Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
5th ScotMER Symposium: Ornithology 2 Marine Scotland Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
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