Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3120
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Hornsea Offshore Wind Farm Project One: UPDATED IN-COMBINATION AUK DISPLACEMENT NOTE Jenner, C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds
The Key Technologies and Development of Offshore Wind Farm in China Wu, J., Wang, Z., Wang, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Effects of Man-Made Structures on Sedimentary Oxygenation: Extent, Seasonality and Implications for Offshore Renewables Wilding, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Assessing Ecological Risks of Offshore Wind Power on Kattegat Cod Hammar, L., Wikström, A., Molander, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Demersal Fish, Pelagic Fish
GHG emissions and energy performance of offshore wind power Raadal, H., Vold, B., Myhr, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Life Cycle Assessment, Human Dimensions
Commercial Wind Lease Issuance and Site Assessment Activities on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Offshore Massachusetts Revised Environmental Assessment Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Assessing Northern Gannet Avoidance of Offshore Windfarms Rehfisch, M., Barrett, Z., Brown, L. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance Seabirds, Birds
Characterization and Potential Impacts of Noise Producing Construction and Operation Activities on the Outer Continental Shelf: Data Synthesis Martin, B., Zeddies, D., MacDonnell, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Navigation
Offshore Activity of Bats Along the Mid-Atlantic Coast Sjollema, A., Gates, J., Hilderbrand, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats
Physical and Numerical Large-Scale Wave Basin Modeling of Fluid-Structure Interaction and Wave Impact Phenomena Yim, S., Azabakht, M., Challa, R. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow
D4.17 Report on environmental monitoring protocols Magagna, D., Lauri, C., Butler, M. Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Collision, Displacement, Habitat Change, Noise Birds, Seabirds, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Population Consequences of Displacement from Proposed Offshore Wind Energy Developments for Seabirds Breeding at Scottish SPAs Searle, K., Mobbs, D., Butler, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds, Seabirds
Coordination and Cooperation in the European Marine Strategy Framework Directive and the US National Ocean Policy Maier, N. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Responses of Free-Living Coastal Pelagic Fish to Impulsive Sounds Hawkins, A., Roberts, L., Cheesman, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Noise Pelagic Fish, Fish
Use of Population Viability Analysis (PVA) to Assess the Potential for Long Term Impacts from Piling Noise on Marine Mammal Populations - A Case Study from the Scottish East Coast De Silva, R., Grellier, K., Lye, G. Presentation Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Pinnipeds
Identifying Space for Offshore Wind Energy in the North Sea. Consequences of Scenario Calculations for Interactions with Other Marine Uses Jongbloed, R., van der Wal, J., Lindeboom, H. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
California Current Cetacean & Ecosystem Assessment Survey (CalCurCEAS): Final Report to Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Regarding Surveys of Windfloat and Wave Energy Areas Barlow, J., Henry, A., Ballance, L. Report Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Marine Mammals, Ecosystem Processes, Cetaceans
Report of the Workshop on International Harmonisation of Approaches to Define Underwater Noise Exposure Criteria Lucke, K., Winter, E., Lam, F. Workshop Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals, Reptiles
Regulatory Framework and Guidelines US Department of the Interior Website Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Design and Initial Component Tests of an Integrated Avian and Bat Collision Detection System for Offshore Wind Turbines Flowers, J., Albertani, R., Harrison, T. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats, Birds
Report on the Implications for European Sites Proposed Walney Extension Offshore Wind Farm The Planning Inspectorate for England and Wales Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Environmental aspects of designing multi-purpose offshore platforms in the scope of the FP7 TROPOS Project Lu, S., Yu, J., Golmen, L. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Human Dimensions
Field Testing of Multiple Sensors in an Underwater Environment Monitoring System Chan, H., Liao, Y., Fang, M. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Turbid Wakes Associated with Offshore Wind Turbines Observed with Landsat 8 Vanhellemont, Q., Ruddick, K. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Sediment Transport, Physical Environment
On a Hybrid Model for the Prediction of Pile Driving Noise from Offshore Wind Farms Lippert, T., von Estorff, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Enrichment and Shifts in Macrobenthic Assemblages in an Offshore Wind Farm Area in the Belgian Part of the North Sea Coates, D., Deschutter, Y., Vincx, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Invertebrates
Integration of marine research results into a maritime spatial plan for Lithuania Mileriene, R., Blažauskas, N., Gulbinskas, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Marine Spatial Planning, Human Dimensions
Navitus Bay Wind Park Environmental Statement: Non-Technical Summary Navitus Bay Development Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Large Eddy Simulation Studies of the Effects of Alignment and Wind Farm Length Stevens, R., Gayme, D., Meneveau, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Life cycle assessment of an offshore grid interconnecting wind farms and customers across the North Sea Arvesen, A., Nes, R., Huertas-Hernando, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Review of Environmental Data Associated with Post-Consent Monitoring of Licence Conditions of Offshore Wind Farms Marine Management Organisation (MMO) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Fish, Invertebrates, Marine Mammals
Establishing an Agenda for Social Studies Research in Marine Renewable Energy Kerr, S., Watt, L., Colton, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Navitus Bay Wind Park Technical Appendix 2.1 - EMF Calculations Report Dorey, P. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind EMF
Horns Rev 3 Offshore Wind Farm: Offshore Noise Emission Wigham, S. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
LONDON ARRAY WINDFARM: EXPORT CABLE ROUTE POST-CONSTRUCTION SURVEY EGS Ltd. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Soaring Migratory Birds Avoid Wind Farm in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Southern Mexico Villegas-Patraca, R., Cabrera-Cruz, S., Herrera-Alsina, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Habitat Change Birds
Effects of Offshore Wind Farms on Marine Wildlife — A Generalized Impact Assessment Bergström, L., Kautsky, L., Malm, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Prioritisation of monitoring and research for diadromous fish in the context of Marine/Offshore Renewables: A summary of stakeholder engagement meetings between Marine Scotland, wild fisheries interests and wind, wave and tidal developers Hunter, D., Malcolm, I., Armstrong, J. Report Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Pelagic Fish, Human Dimensions, Fisheries, Stakeholder Engagement
Habitat Use and Selection of Black Scoters in Southern New England and Siting of Offshore Wind Energy Facilities Loring, P., Paton, P., Osenkowski, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds
Etude d’Impact Acoustique du Parc Eolien Offshore du Banc de Guérande, Saint-Nazaire, France Clorennec, D., Folegot, T. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
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