Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3120
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
On the Effect of Offshore Wind Farms on the Atmosphere and Ocean Dynamics Ludewig, E. Book Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Collision, Displacement and Barrier Effect Concept Note Humphreys, E., Cook, S., Burton, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Human Dimensions
Environmental Risk Evaluation System - An Approach to Ranking Risk of Ocean Energy Development on Coastal and Estuarine Environments Copping, A., Hanna, L., Van Cleve, B. Journal Article Wind Energy, Wave, Tidal, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change, Displacement, Collision, Chemicals, Changes in Flow, Avoidance, Attraction Marine Mammals, Fish, Birds
Offshore wind climatology based on synergetic use of Envisat ASAR, ASCAT and QuikSCAT Hasager, C., Mouche, A., Badger, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Review and guidance on use of “shutdown-on-demand” for wind turbines to conserve migrating soaring birds in the Rift Valley/Red Sea Flyway BirdLife International Guidance Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Bats, Birds
Renewable Energy Developments in an Uncertain World: The Case of Offshore Wind and Birds in the UK Masden, E., McCluskie, A., Owen, E. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
A Life Cycle Co-Benefits Assessment of Wind Power in China Xue, B., Ma, Z., Geng, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
The European Offshore Wind Industry - Key Trends and Statistics 2014 Corbetta, G., Ho, A., Guillet, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Effect of pile-driving sound on the survival of fish larvae Bolle, L., de Jong, C., Blom, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Pelagic Fish, Fish
Depth use and movements of homing Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in Scottish coastal waters in relation to marine renewable energy development Godfrey, J., Stewart, D., Middlemas, S. Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Fish, Pelagic Fish
The Avoidance Rates of Collision Between Birds and Offshore Turbines Cook, A., Humphreys, E., Masden, E. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds, Seabirds
Report on the Implications for European Sites Proposed Dogger Bank Teesside A & B Offshore Wind Farm The Planning Inspectorate for England and Wales Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Offshore Wind Submarine Cable Spacing Guidance TÜV SÜD PMSS, Red Penguin Associates Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Investigating the Co-Existence of Fisheries and Offshore Renewable Energy in the UK: Identification of a Mitigation Agenda for Fishing Effort Displacement de Groot, J., Campbell, M., Ashley, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Electricity Generated by Offshore Wind Farms Reimers, B., Özdirik, B., Kaltschmitt, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Realizing the social acceptance of community renewable energy: A process-outcome analysis of stakeholder influence Ruggiero, S., Onkila, T., Kuittinen, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Stakeholder Engagement
The Influence of Large Offshore Wind Farms on the North Sea and Baltic Sea - A Comprehensive Literature Review Clark, S., Schroeder, F., Baschek, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Ecosystem Processes, Physical Environment, Water Quality
Virginia Offshore Wind Technology Advancement Project on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Offshore Virginia Environmental Assessment Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Maps of SPA breeding seabird foraging ranges Scottish Natural Heritage Presentation Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds
Hornsea Offshore Wind Farm Final Environmental Assessment Horton, G. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Fish, Marine Mammals, Physical Environment, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Eco-Maintenance for Complex Systems: Application on System of Renewable Energy Production Tchertchian, N., Millet, D. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes
New Hydro Sound Dampers to Reduce Piling Underwater Noise Elmer, K., Savery, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
The New Noise Mitigation System 'Hydro Sound Dampers': History of Development with Several Hydro Sound and Vibration Measurements Burns, B., Kuhn, C., Stein, P. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Dynamic Measurements of Pile Deflections as a Source of Underwater Sound Emissions during Impact Driving of Offshore Pile Foundations Kuhn, C., Sychla, H., Stein, P. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
New Achievements in Underwater Noise Modelling for Offshore Pile Driving Trimoreau, B., Lutzen, R., Kringelum, J. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Hydro Sound Measurements during the Installation of Large Diameter Offshore Piles using Combinations of Independent Noise Mitigation Systems Burns, B., Stein, P., Kuhn, C. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Understanding Bird Collisions at Wind Farms: An Updated Review on the Causes and Possible Mitigation Strategies Marques, A., Batalha, H., Rodrigues, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds
Is EIA Part of the Wind Power Planning Problem? Smart, D., Stojanovic, T., Warren, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Gwynt y Môr Siemens Project Site Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Assessing the Underwater Acoustics of the World's Largest Vibration Hammer (OCTA-KONG) and Its Potential Effects on the Indo-Pacific Humpbacked Dolphin (Sousa chinensis) Wang, Z., Wu, Y., Duan, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Strategic assessment of collision risk of Scottish offshore wind farms to migrating birds Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT) Journal Article Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
In Situ Mortality Experiments with Juvenile Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) in Relation to Impulsive Sound Levels Caused by Pile Driving of Windmill Foundations Dubusschere, E., de Coensel, B., Bajek, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Fish, Demersal Fish
Strengthening the Role of Science in Marine Governance through Environmental Impact Assessment: A Case Study of the Marine Renewable Energy Industry Wright, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Experimental Analysis of the Wake of a Horizontal-Axis Wind-Turbine Model Lignarolo, L., Ragni, D., Krishnaswami, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Pseudo Spectral Analysis of the Energy Entrainment in a Scaled Down Wind Farm Newman, J., Drew, D., Castillo, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow
Use of Static Passive Acoustic Monitoring (PAM) for monitoring cetaceans at Marine Renewable Energy Installations (MREIs) for Marine Scotland Embling, C., Wilson, B., Benjamins, S. Guidance Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Ecological research at the offshore test site "Alpha Ventus" to be used in an evaluation of the BSH's Standards for Environmental Impact Assessments (StUKplus) Beiersdorf, A., Boethling, M., Binder, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Case Studies From Implementation of the First Commercial Leasing Processes for Areas of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Under the U.S. Renewable Energy Regulations Trager, E. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Modeling Large Offshore Wind Farms Under Different Atmospheric Stability Regimes with the Park Wake Model Peña, A., Réthoré, P., Rathmann, O. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
The challenges and possible solutions of horizontal axis wind turbines as a clean energy solution for the future Ahmed, N., Cameron, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Noise Bats, Birds
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