Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3120
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
Predicting the impacts of anthropogenic disturbances on marine populations Nabe-Nielsen, J., van Beest, F., Grimm, V. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Avoidance, Noise Marine Mammals
The influence of stakeholder groups in operation and maintenance services of offshore wind farms: Lesson from Denmark Ahsan, D., Pederson, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Cumulative Adverse Effects of Offshore Wind Energy Development on Wildlife [Thesis] Goodale, M. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Seabirds
Appendix M-1 Biological Assessment for Project Icebreaker EDR, D.P.C. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes
Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Survey of Lease Area OCSA 0512 Monthly Report: May 2018 Jervis, L., Warford, S., Wilmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Quantifying avian avoidance of offshore wind turbines: Current evidence and key knowledge gaps Cook, A., Humphreys, E., Bennet, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds
Creation of microhabitats (tidepools) in ripraps with climax communities as a way to mitigate negative effects of artificial substrate on marine biodiversity Ostale-Valriberas, E., Sempere-Valverde, J., Coppa, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Habitat Change Invertebrates
Towards sustainable implementation of maritime spatial planning in Europe: A peek into the potential of the Regional Sea Conventions playing a stronger role de Grunt, L., Calado, H. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Validating automated click detector dolphin detection rates and investigating factors affecting performance Garrod, A., Fandel, A., Wingfield, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Effects of Man-Made Sound on Fishes Hawkins, A., Popper, A. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Noise Fish
Effects of Noise on Marine Mammals Erbe, C., Dunlop, R., Dolman, S. Book Chapter Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Noise Marine Mammals
Ocean sprawl facilitates dispersal and connectivity of protected species Henry, L., Mayorga-Adame, C., Fox, A. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Site Selection of Hybrid Offshore Wind and Wave Energy Systems in Greece Incorporating Environmental Impact Assessment Loukogeorgaki, E., Vagiona, D., Vasileiou, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Wave, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy
Metocean Characterization Recommended Practices for U.S. Offshore Wind Energy Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
The legislative regime for environment assessment and approval of offshore wind energy developments in England and Wales Wawryk, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Estimating Seabird Flight Height using LiDAR Cook, A., Ward, R., Hansen, W. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Seabirds, Birds
The Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Marine Spatial Planning and Marine Renewables: Linking Concepts for Implementation. A Case Study from Scotland MacDonald, A. Thesis Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind EMF, Habitat Change, Noise Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summary of Summer 2018 Digital Survey #9 Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Oceanographic and biological influences on recruitment of benthic invertebrates to hard substrata on the Oregon shelf Meyer, K., Li, Y., Young, C. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates
A call for a blue degrowth: Unravelling the European Union's fisheries and maritime policies Hadjimichael, M. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Lessons learned in marine governance: Case studies of marine spatial planning practice in the U.S. Smythe, T., McCann, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Stakeholder Engagement, Marine Spatial Planning, Legal & Policy, Human Dimensions
Trialling a Seabird Sensitivity Mapping Tool for Marine Renewable Energy Developments in Ireland Burke, B. Report Marine Energy, Tidal, Wave, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision Birds, Seabirds
Icebreaker Wind Aerial Survey Waterbird Report Stucker, J., Carlisle, J., Pham, D. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Displacement Birds, Waterfowl
Precipitation reduction during Hurricane Harvey with simulated offshore wind farms Pan, Y., Yan, C., Archer, C. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment
Benthic biodiversity on old platforms, young wind farms, and rocky reefs Coolen, J., van der Weide, B., Cuperus, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Invertebrates
Improving the coexistence of offshore wind farms and shipping: an international comparison of navigational risk assessment processes Mehdi, R., Schröder-Hinrichs, J., van Overloop, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Navigation
Numerical study of multi-scale flow-sediment-structure interactions using a multiphase approach Nagel, T. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Sediment Transport, Physical Environment
The social dynamics of turbine tourism and recreation: Introducing a mixed-method approach to the study of the first U.S. offshore wind farm Smith, H., Smythe, T., Moore, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Recreation & Tourism
Nobelwind Offshore Energy: Annual Work Report 2017 Nobelwind Offshore Energy Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Environmental benefits of leaving offshore infrastructure in the ocean Fowler, A., Jørgensen, A., Svendsen, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Survey of Lease Area OCSA 0512 Monthly Report: April 2018 Jervis, L., Warford, S., Goddard, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Positive energies? An empirical study of community energy participation and attitudes to renewable energy Bauwens, T., Devine-Wright, P. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Stakeholder Engagement, Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
The influence of regulatory framework on environmental impact assessment in the development of offshore wind farms in Spain: Issues, challenges and solutions Salvador, S., Gimeno, L., Larruga, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Imbalances in interaction for transboundary marine spatial planning: Insights from the Baltic Sea Region Janßen, H., Varjopuro, R., Luttmann, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Marine Spatial Planning, Human Dimensions
Zooplankton Community Responses and the Relation to Environmental Factors from Established Offshore Wind Farms within the Rudong Coastal Area of China Wang, T., Yu, W., Zou, X. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Water Quality, Physical Environment, Ecosystem Processes
Anthropogenic disturbance facilitates a non-native species on offshore oil platforms Viola, S., Page, H., Zaleski, S. Journal Article Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Habitat Change Invertebrates
Resolving environmental effects of wind energy Sinclair, K., Copping, A., May, R. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Bats, Birds, Marine Mammals
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Winter 2017–2018 Target Extraction Summary Report Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Survey Results of Lease Area OCS-A 0512 Equinor Quarterly Report: February 2018 to April 2018 Jervis, L., Warford, S., Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Birds, Fish, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Natural variability of turbulence and stratification in a tidal shelf sea and the possible impact of offshore wind farms Schultze, V. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Water Quality
Displaying 1481 - 1520 of 3120 results