Fixed Offshore Wind

Capturing energy from offshore wind with bottom-mounted foundations.

Offshore wind energy technologies harness kinetic energy from the wind to generate energy and transport that energy back to shore via a subsea export cable. The main advantage of offshore wind energy is access to stronger and more consistent winds, allowing for the use of larger turbines. The development of offshore wind in Europe and Asia has preceded development activities in other parts of the world; however, several projects in the United States are currently underway.

There are different types of offshore wind turbine foundation on which the turbine can be installed, depending on the depth and substrate. Gravity foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30m) and consist of large, steel or concrete bases that rest on the seabed. Suction bucket foundations are also made from steel or concrete, and are installed using the pressure difference generated between the inside of the bucket and the water surrounding it (without any use of mechanical force). Monopile foundations are used at shallow depths (0-30 m) and consist of a pile that is driven into the seabed. Monopiles are typically less costly than other foundation types and are the most commonly used. Tripod fixed bottom foundations are used at transitional depths (20-80m) and consist of three legs connecting to a central shaft that supports the turbine base. Each leg has a pile driven into the seabed, which creates a wide foundation that allows for the piles to be placed at a shallower depth in the seabed than monopile foundations. Jacket foundations are also used at transitional depths (20-80m) and feature a lattice framework that comprises three to four anchoring points driven into the seafloor.

The environmental concerns associated with offshore wind farms vary with foundation type. Monopiles, for example, require pile-driving, which produces incredibly loud noises that tend to propagate far in the water, even after mitigation strategies such as bubble shields, slow start, and acoustic cladding are employed. Collision risk with birds and bats is a major concern, though the impact is more difficult to quantify offshore because carcasses that provide evidence of collisions become lost at sea. While the footprint of offshore wind energy is relatively small, it may still cause scouring and changes to sediment transport. As with all electricity generation, there is a slight concern that electromagnetic fields generated by power cables may affect animals that use Earth's natural magnetic field for orientation, navigation, and hunting. Artificial reefing is likely to occur around wind farms as the new hard substrate provides protection and attracts colonizing invertebrates and fish.

Affiliated Marine and Wind Energy Environmental Documents

Total results: 3120
Title Author Date Content Type Technology Stressor Receptor
An Efficient Model for Offshore Pile Driving Noise Taking Into Account the Hammer Characteristics Klages, E., Von Pein, J., Lippert, S. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise
Retrospective and Outlook for an Environmentally Sound Development of Offshore Wind Energy Lüdeke, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Environmental Impact Assessment
Moray Firth River Oykel Missing Salmon Project Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries, Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment, University of Glasgow Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance Fish
Life cycle cost-benefit analysis of offshore wind energy under the climatic conditions in Southeast Asia - Setting the bottom-line for deployment Nian, V., Liu, Y., Zhong, S. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Life Cycle Assessment
Wozep WP2: update of the Aquarius models for marine pile driving sound predictions de Jong, C., Binnerts, B., Prior, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Pinnipeds
Community Benefits and UK Offshore Wind Farms: evolving convergence in a divergent practice Glasson, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Moray Firth River Findhorn Missing Salmon Project Findhorn, Nairn, and Lossie Fisheries Trust, Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment, University of Glasgow Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance Fish
Measuring sensitivity of two OSPAR indicators for a coastal food web model under offshore wind farm construction Raoux, A., Lassalle, G., Pezy, J. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Ecosystem Processes
Environmental Impacts of Offshore Wind Farms in the Belgian Part of the North Sea: Marking a Decade of Monitoring, Research and Innovation Degraer, S., Brabant, R., Rumes, B. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Chemicals, Noise Birds, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Moray Firth River Conon Missing Salmon Project Cromarty Firth Fishery Board, Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment, University of Glasgow Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance Fish
Resolving Conflicts Between Endangered Species Conservation and Renewable Energy Siting: Wiggle Room for Renewables? Badichek, G. Journal Article Wind Energy, Land-Based Wind, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Framework for Assessing Ecological and Cumulative Effects 3.0 for the roll-out of offshore wind energy 2030 Sub-report A: Methods Rijkswaterstaat Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change Birds, Ecosystem Processes, Marine Mammals, Cetaceans
Moray Firth River Shin Missing Salmon Project Kyle of Sutherland Fisheries, Scottish Centre for Ecology and the Natural Environment, University of Glasgow Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance Fish
Reconversion of offshore oil and gas platforms into renewable energy sites production: Assessment of different scenarios Leporini, M., Marchetti, B., Corvaro, F. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Life Cycle Assessment
Common Guillemots and offshore wind farms: an ecological discussion of statistical analyses conducted by Alain Zuur Leopold, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Displacement Birds, Seabirds
Beatrice Decommissioning Programmes: Final Version Repsol Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Biodiversity Characterisation of Fouling Communities and Their Hydrodynamic Consequences on Marine Renewable Energy Infrastructure in the UK Want, A., Harris, R., Porter, J. Conference Paper Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Habitat Change
From identification of compatibilities and conflicts to reaching marine spatial allocation agreements. Review of actions required and relevant tools and processes Kyriazi, Z. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Marine Spatial Planning, Human Dimensions
Vineyard Wind Offshore Wind Energy Project Biological Assessment Vineyard Wind Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind
Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Survey of Lease Area OCSA 0512 Monthly Report: September 2018 Jervis, L., Warford, S., Arundale, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Power transmission: Where the offshore wind energy comes home Firestone, J., Bates, A., Prefer, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Social & Economic Data
Collision and displacement vulnerability to offshore wind energy infrastructure among marine birds of the Pacific Outer Continental Shelf Kelsey, E., Felis, J., Czapanskiy, M. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Attraction, Avoidance, Collision, Displacement Birds
Addressing conflicting spatial demands in MSP: Considerations for MSP planners Gee, K., Lukic, I., Schultz-Zehden, A. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data
Digital Aerial Baseline Survey of Marine Wildlife in Support of Offshore Wind Energy Summary of Fall 2018 Digital Survey #10 Normandeau Associates Inc Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Korean traditional beliefs and renewable energy transitions: Pungsu, shamanism, and the local perception of wind turbines Kim, E., Chung, J., Seo, Y. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Co-location opportunities for renewable energies and aquaculture facilities in the Canary Archipelago Weiss, C., Ondiviela, B., Guinda, X. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Marine Energy Marine Spatial Planning, Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Survey of Lease Area OCSA 0512 Monthly Report: August 2018 Jervis, L., Warford, S., Dominguez Alvarez, N. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Marine Mammals, Reptiles, Sea Turtles
Micrometeorological impacts of offshore wind farms as seen in observations and simulations Siedersleben, S., Lundquist, J., Platis, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Physical Environment
Assessment of system effects of large-scale implementation of offshore wind in the southern North Sea Boon, A., Caires, S., Wijnant, I. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Changes in Flow, Habitat Change Physical Environment
Perceptions of Commercial and Recreational Fishers on the Potential Ecological Impacts of the Block Island Wind Farm (US) ten Brink, T., Dalton, T. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Fisheries
Assessing the Impact of Climate Conditions on Harnessing Coastal (Offshore) Wind Energy Akter, S., Loo, J., Hannan, M. Conference Paper Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions
Is Marine Spatial Planning Enough to Overcome Biological Data Deficiencies? Ryan, K., Danylchuk, A., Jordaan, A. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning
Costs and consequences of wind turbine wake effects arising from uncoordinated wind energy development Lundquist, J., DuVivier, K., Kaffine, D. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Land-Based Wind Changes in Flow Social & Economic Data, Human Dimensions
Wave Climate and Coastline Response of the Dutch Coast: Investigating the effect of large-scale offshore wind farm developments in the North Sea Ballas, G. Thesis Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Changes in Flow Physical Environment, Sediment Transport
A fuzzy-MADM based approach for site selection of offshore wind farm in busy waterways in China Wu, B., Yip, T., Xie, L. Journal Article Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Human Dimensions, Marine Spatial Planning, Social & Economic Data
Cumulative effects of offshore wind farms: loss of habitat for seabirds van der Wal, J., van Puijenbroek, M., Leopold, M. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Collision, Habitat Change Bats, Birds, Seabirds
Management Objectives and Research Priorities for Fisheries in the Massachusetts and Rhode Island-Massachusetts offshore Wind Energy Area Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Fish, Invertebrates
Ornithological and Marine Fauna Aerial Survey Results of Lease Area OCS-A 0512 Equinor Quarterly Report: May 2018 to July 2018 Jervis, L., Warford, S., Willmott, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind
Interim Guidance on apportioning impacts from marine renewable developments to breeding seabird populations in SPAs Scottish Natural Heritage Guidance Marine Energy, Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind Birds, Seabirds, Human Dimensions, Legal & Policy
Determining Habitat Use by Marine Mammals and Ambient Noise Levels Using Passive Acoustic Monitoring Offshore of Maryland Bailey, H., Rice, A., Wingfield, J. Report Wind Energy, Fixed Offshore Wind, Floating Offshore Wind Noise Marine Mammals
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