Abstract
There has been a need to describe and assess the effects of human activities on natural ecosystems since at least the 1970s. It was realised in the 1980s that it is not enough to describe and assess the effects of specific proposals and activities but that it is also necessary to examine whether the effects of various different activities can accumulate to produce larger or more damaging ecological or environmental impacts.
Since 2005, the Dutch government has received development consent applications for offshore wind farms that require a decision about how to assess not only the effects on the marine ecosystem of the separate wind farms but also the cumulative effects with other wind farms and in combination with other activities. Given a number of issues, including knowledge gaps about the cause–effect relationships, the presence of marine species and the resulting mandatory application of the precautionary principle, the assessment led to the imposition of restrictions on the development of offshore wind power and to a number of mitigation measures.
On the basis of the knowledge gaps identified, research programmes have been established (Ecological Monitoring Shortlist 2010-2011, Follow-up to Implementation of Master Plan 2012-2015, Offshore Wind Energy Ecological Programme (WOZEP1)). Other countries have also recognised the effects (cumulative and otherwise) of offshore wind farms and have conducted extensive research in recent years.
The 2030 Offshore Wind Energy Roadmap was2 published in March 2018. In addition to the wind farms to be built through to 2023, this also includes the scheduling and locations of the offshore wind farms through to 2030.
In the North Sea Policy Document 2016-2021, which is an integral part of the National Water Plan 2016-20213, the Dutch government has committed itself to drawing up and applying a framework for ecological and cumulative effects. This underlying Framework for Ecological and Cumulative Effects fulfils that commitment. Since January 2017, the inclusion of cumulative effects in plans and projects has also been implemented in Dutch legislation in Article 7.23(1)(f) of the Environmental Management Act.